GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA
, AUGUST 2019, 70, 4, 325–354
doi: 10.2478/geoca-2019-0019
www.geologicacarpathica.com
Integrated bio- and cyclostratigraphy of Middle Triassic
(Anisian) ramp deposits, NW Bulgaria
GEORGE AJDANLIJSKY
1
, ANDRÉ STRASSER
2
and ANNETTE E. GÖTZ
3,
1
University of Mining and Geology “St. Ivan Rilski”, Department of Geology and Geoinformatics, Sofia 1700, Bulgaria; g.ajdanlijsky@mgu.bg
2
University of Fribourg, Department of Geosciences, Geology–Paleontology, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; andreas.strasser@unifr.ch
3
University of Portsmouth, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Portsmouth PO1 3QL, United Kingdom;
annette.goetz@port.ac.uk
(Manuscript received March 18, 2019; accepted in revised form June 27, 2019)
Abstract: A cyclostratigraphic interpretation of peritidal to shallow-marine ramp deposits of the early Middle Triassic
(Anisian) Opletnya Member exposed in outcrops along the Iskar River gorge, NW Bulgaria, is presented. Based on facies
trends and bounding surfaces, depositional sequences of several orders can be identified. New biostratigraphic data
provide a time frame of the studied succession with placement of the boundaries of the Anisian substages and show that
the Aegean (early Anisian) substage lasted about 1.6 Myr. In the corresponding interval in the two studied sections,
80 elementary sequences are counted. Five elementary sequences compose a small-scale sequence. The prominent cyclic
pattern of the Opletnya Member can thus be interpreted in terms of Milankovitch cyclicity: elementary sequences repre-
sent the precession (20-kyr) cycle and small-scale sequences the short eccentricity (100-kyr) cycle in the Milankovitch
frequency band. Medium-scale sequences are defined based on lithology but only in two cases can be attributed to
the long eccentricity cycle of 405 kyr. The transgressive-regressive facies trends within the sequences of all scales imply
that they were controlled by sea-level changes, and that these were in tune with the climate changes induced by the orbital
cycles. However, the complexity of facies and sedimentary structures seen in the Opletnya Member also implies that
additional factors such as lateral migration of sediment bodies across the ramp were active. In addition, three major
sequence boundaries have been identified in the studied sections, which can be correlated with the boundaries Ol4, An1,
and An2 of the Tethyan realm.
Keywords: Sedimentary cycles, palynology, conodonts, Triassic, Western Balkanides, NW Bulgaria.
Introduction
The Anisian is a crucial time interval in Earth’s history to
understand carbonate platform reorganization in the aftermath
of the most severe extinction event at the end of the Permian
(e.g., Benton 2015) and the incipient break-up of the super-
continent Pangaea (Stampfli et al. 2013), the northwestern
Tethyan realm being best suited to study the comeback of shal-
low-marine environments at the beginning of the Mesozoic
(e.g., Feist-Burkhardt et al. 2008; Stefani et al. 2010; Haas et
al. 2012; Escudero-Mozo et al. 2015; Matysik 2016; Chatalov
2018).
Since the first detailed descriptions in the late 19
th
century
by Toula (1878), Middle Triassic carbonate successions of
the Western Balkanides have been studied to define lithostrati-
graphic units and detect facies types (Tronkov 1960, 1968,
1973, 1976, 1981, 1992; Tronkov et al. 1965; Chemberski et
al. 1974; Assereto & Čatalov 1983; Assereto et al. 1983;
Chatalov 1997; Benatov & Chatalov 2000; Chatalov et al.
2001). Microfossils and invertebrate groups have been used
(Tronkov 1968, 1976; 1983, 1995; Budurov & Stefanov 1972;
Budurov 1980; Budurov & Trifonova 1995; Benatov 2000,
2001) to compare and correlate these deposits referred to as
“Balkanide type” (Ganev 1974; Chatalov 1980, 1991; Zagor-
chev & Budurov 2009) lithologically and stratigraphically
with the “Germano-type” Muschelkalk successions of the
Germanic Basin, showing striking facies similarities (Chatalov
1991). However, up to date the lack of a robust biostratigraphic
framework hampers a precise age control of these deposits and
hence regional correlation with Middle Triassic ramp systems
of the northwestern Tethyan (e.g., Michalík et al. 1992; Haas
et al. 1995; Philip et al. 1996; Török 1998; Götz et al. 2003;
Rychliński & Szulc 2005; Götz & Török 2008) and Peri-
Tethyan, i.e. Germanic realms (e.g., Götz 1996; Szulc 2000;
Pöppelreiter 2002; Borkhataria et al. 2006; Matysik 2016).
The challenge of a high-resolution correlation of Anisian
Muschelkalk ramp cycles across the Tethyan shelf and the
Peri-Tethyan basin was outlined by Götz & Török (2018).
Recent studies revisited the excellent outcrops along the
Iskar River gorge (Fig. 1), focusing on the continental–marine
transition and ramp initialization (Ajdanlijsky et al. 2018), and
on the overall facies development of the ramp system
(Chatalov 2013, 2018). The onset of the Anisian ramp system,
after continental sedimentation in the Early Triassic, features
a pronounced cyclic character of peritidal and shallow-marine
carbonates (Chatalov 2000), and different hierarchical scales
can be defined for the Early to early Middle Triassic interval.
A major sequence boundary occurs at the base of the Middle
Triassic Iskar Carbonate Group (Ajdanlijsky et al. 2018).
A mid-Anisian maximum-flooding zone is inferred from
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the litho- and biofacies of the so-called “Terebratula Beds”
(Chatalov 2013), and a long-term, second-order sea-level rise
is interpreted from the Olenekian onwards, followed by a mid-
Anisian to early Carnian sea-level fall again creating a major
sequence boundary (Chatalov 2018).
The present study yields new biostratigraphic data provi-
ding a refined age control. Palynofacies analysis is used to
decipher short- and long-term sea-level fluctuations by chan-
ges of terrigenous input, preservation and sorting of phytoclasts,
and prominent phytoplankton (acritarch) peaks indi
cating
major flooding phases. Combined with the detailed analysis of
lithology and sedimentary structures, this allows a robust
sequence- and cyclostratigraphic interpretation to be proposed.
Geological setting
The study area, located approximately 35 km north of Sofia,
is part of the Western Balkanides, i.e. the Western Balkan
Tectonic Zone (Ivanov 1998) of the Alpine orogenic belt. Its
pre-Mesozoic basement includes high-grade metamorphosed
lower Paleozoic sedimentary and igneous rocks and upper
Paleozoic sedimentary, igneous and volcanic rocks (Yanev 2000).
The overlying Triassic succession forms the base of the Meso-
zoic cover and is subdivided into three units: the Petrohan Terri-
genous Group (Tronkov 1981) consisting predominantly of
fluvial deposits; the Iskar Carbonate Group (Tronkov 1981)
composed of shallow-marine carbonates and mixed siliciclas-
tic–carbonate rocks; and the Moesian Group (Chemberski et
al. 1974) represented by siliciclastic–carbonate and carbonate
rocks (Fig. 2). The Iskar River gorge exposes an excellent con-
tinuous succession of the marine Iskar Carbonate Group with
a maximum thickness of about 480 m (Chatalov 2013). The lower
part of the group is assigned to the Anisian stage (Fig. 3).
Materials and methods
Two key sections (Lakatnik and Sfrazen) of the Mogila
Formation as part of the Iskar Carbonate Group (Figs. 2, 3)
were logged in great detail. The Sfrazen section, representing
the formation’s type section, is situated north of Sfrazen ham-
let, 1.5 km west of the village of Opletnya. The Lakatnik sec-
tion is located directly north of the Lakatnik railway station,
about 3 km west of the Sfrazen hamlet. Both sections offer
excellent lateral and almost continuous vertical exposures of
the Mogila Formation. The detailed bed-by-bed documenta-
tion includes lithology, fossil content, and sedimentary struc-
tures. The microfacies and the textures (Dunham classification)
were determined on the outcrop with a hand lens and in
52 thin-sections. In the Sfrazen section, the overlying Babino
Formation and lowermost Milanovo Formation were logged in
order to obtain additional biostratigraphic tie points. Samples
for biostratigraphic analysis of palynomorphs and conodonts,
and for palynofacies analysis were taken from all three forma-
tions and different lithologies. In both sections, a small-scale
cycle within the lower Mogila Formation (Opletnya Member)
was sampled for high-resolution palynofacies analysis.
Fig. 1. Excellent outcrops along the Iskar River gorge expose the Iskar Carbonate Group overlying the Petrohan Terrigenous Group (PTG).
The Opletnya Member is ca. 135 m thick.
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Palynological samples were prepared using standard pro-
cessing techniques (Wood et al. 1996), including HCl (33 %)
and HF (73 %) treatment for dissolution of carbonates and
silicates, and saturated ZnCl
2
solution (D ≈ 2.2 g/ml) for den-
sity separation. Residues were sieved at 15 µm mesh size and
mounted in Eukitt, a commercial, resin-based mounting
medium. Palynological slides were analyzed on a Leica
DM2000 microscope. Formic acid (10 %) was used for
extraction of conodont elements from bioclastic grainstones.
After sieving the residue, conodont elements were picked and
transferred to microcells for identification using a Leica M80
stereomicroscope.
Biostratigraphy
Early biostratigraphic studies on the Bulgarian Triassic
used conodonts to establish a zonation scheme applicable for
Fig. 2. Study area and location of studied sections north of Sofia in the Balkan Zone, NW Bulgaria (modified from Ajdanlijsky et al. 2018).
L: Lakatnik section (43°05’22” N, 23°23’34” E); S: Sfrazen section (43°06’04” N, 23°25’27” E).
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Fig. 3. Stratigraphy of the Triassic sequence exposed in outcrops of the Iskar River gorge, NW Bulgaria, with range of the studied sections
shown in Figures 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14. The placement of the Olenekian–Anisian boundary and the Anisian substage boundaries is based on
new biostratigraphic data (Ajdanlijsky et al. 2018; this study). Acritarch peaks occur in the lower Opletnya Member (1), lower Lakatnik
Member (2), and Zimevitsa Member (3), indicating major flooding events. Abbreviations: Fm. = Formation, Mb. = Member; PA I = palynoas-
semblage I (Aegean), PA II = palynoassemblage II (Bithynian–Pelsonian), PA III = palynoassemblage III (Illyrian).
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the marine parts of the succession (Budurov & Stefanov 1972,
1973, 1975; Budurov 1976, 1980). They were later accompa-
nied by analyses of benthic foraminiferal assemblages, firstly
to erect a refined zonation scheme including standard cono-
dont and foraminifera zones (Budurov & Trifonova 1984,
1995; Budurov et al. 1995), and secondly to provide a tenta-
tive correlation with the Tethyan ammonite zones. Studies by
Tronkov (1960, 1968, 1981, 1983) focused on invertebrate
groups, mainly bivalves and brachiopods, and also used rare
ammonoid findings (Tronkov 1976) to overcome the limited
correlation of the Bulgarian Triassic with the Triassic of
the Tethyan and Peri-Tethyan realms. Later, Benatov (1998)
established regional bivalve and brachiopod zones for the
Middle Triassic in order to correlate them with the existing
zonation schemes. Consequently, these zones were used for
dating and regional correlation (Benatov et al. 1999; Benatov
2000, 2001). However, the facies-dependent occurrence of
bivalves and brachiopods and their generally low time resolu-
tion hampers precise dating and correlation at regional and
over-regional scales. Furthermore, conodont assemblages
obtained from olistoliths (Budurov 1976) without reference
sections, the noticeable conodont provincialism (Budurov &
Petrunova 2000) and Peri-Tethyan endemism (Chen et al.
2019), and ultimately the huge recent progress in Triassic
conodont research applying multi-element taxonomy and
revised, lineage-based zonation schemes (e.g., Chen et al.
2015, 2019), demonstrate the urgent need of a revision of
the existing conodont stratigraphy of Bulgaria.
Previous palynological investigations in the Triassic of
Bulgaria have been limited to a few attempts to date forma-
tions (Kalvacheva & Čatalov 1974; Čatalov & Visscher 1990;
Petrunova 1992a, b, 1999, 2000; Budurov et al. 1997). How-
ever, recent palynological studies on continental and marine
deposits of the Early–Middle Triassic transition interval
exposed in outcrops along the Iskar River gorge (Ajdanlijsky
et al. 2018) show the huge potential to establish a high-resolu-
tion palynostratigraphy. So far, the Olenekian–Anisian boun-
dary was palynologically identified in the uppermost fluvial
Petrohan Terrigenous Group, differing from previous interpre-
tations, which placed this boundary at different positions in
the Mogila Formation of the overlying Iskar Carbonate Group
(Tronkov 1983; Chatalov 2018). In the present study, the focus
is on palynomorphs to further develop Triassic palynostrati-
graphy. Additionally, conodonts are used to refine the existing
Anisian stratigraphy of NW Bulgaria.
Palynological key taxa allow dividing the Anisian succes-
sion into three palynoassemblages (Fig. 3). Assemblage I
identified in the lower Mogila Formation is characterized by
Anisian index taxa including Cristianisporites triangulatus,
Illinites kosankei, Illinites chitonoides, Stellapollenites thier
gartii, Tsugaepollenites oriens, and Triadispora crassa. Early
Triassic elements such as Densoisporites nejburgii and
Voltziaceaesporites heteromorphus are still present, indicating
an early Anisian (Aegean) age (Heunisch 1999, 2019). Assem-
blage II is composed of Anisian taxa as listed above, with the
last appearance of Cristianisporites triangulatus and Illinites
kosankei in the uppermost Babino Formation, indicating
a Bithynian–Pelsonian age. Assemblage III of the basal
Milanovo Formation is characterized by Illinites chitonoides,
Stellapollenites thiergartii, Tsugaepollenites oriens, Tria
dispora crassa, and the first appearance of Kraeuselisporites
wargensis, indicating a late Anisian (Illyrian) age (Kustatscher
& Roghi 2006).
In the Sfrazen section, the occurrence of conodonts (N. ger
manica / N. kockeli) in the upper Mogila Formation and the
Babino Formation enables the placement of the Bithynian/
Pelsonian boundary (Götz et al. 2019) in the lowermost
Zimevitsa Member of the Babino Formation. The identifica-
tion of Pelsonian elements such as Paragondolella bulgarica
(Chen et al. 2015), accompanied by findings of crinoid colum-
nal segments of Holocrinus dubius, an index species of the
Pelsonian (Hagdorn & Głuchowski 1993; Głuchowski &
Salamon 2005; Niedźwiedzki & Salamon 2006), in bioclastic
grainstones of the Zimevitsa Member, support this age
assignment.
Sedimentology
In the studied area, the Anisian succession starts with the
Svidol Formation that demonstrates a wide variety of silici-
clastic–terrigenous, siliciclastic–carbonate, and carbonate
rocks (Ajdanlijsky et al. 2018), followed upwards by the
mainly carbonate successions of the Mogila, Babino and
Milanovo formations.
Opletnya Member
In the Opletnya Member (lower part of the Mogila
Formation), carbonates prevail while the mixed siliciclastic–
terrigenous and siliciclastic–carbonate rocks, presented mainly
by thin beds, form only an insignificant part of the succession.
Among the carbonates, where limestones prevail over dolo-
mitic limestones and dolomites, wacke- and packstones are
more common than mud- and grainstones.
Wackestones and mudstones
Wacke- and mudstones are medium- to thick-bedded
(15–80 cm), rarely thin-bedded (5–8 cm), massive, laminated
or nodular (Fig. 4b), commonly bioturbated (Figs. 4a, 5a), and
contain benthic foraminifera and ostracods. The laminations
are more often thick (3–4 mm) than thin (1–1.5 mm). In some
cases, scale and intensity of the bioturbation allows for lateral
correlation between sections. Pebble-sized intraclasts, mainly
with lithologies similar to those of the hosting bed, occur very
rarely. Solitary small fragments of gagate (jet) are observed in
several levels (Zdravkov et al. 2019). Birdseyes and different
degrees of dolomitization occur occasionally both in wacke-
stones and mudstones. These facies and sedimentary struc-
tures point to a peritidal to shallow-marine environment (e.g.,
Flügel 2004).
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Fig. 4. Limestone lithologies in the Opletnya Member (Mogila Formation): a — plan view of intensively bioturbated wackestone (pen for
scale), Sfrazen section, 86.6 m, elementary sequence 44; b — nodular wacke- to mudstone from the lower part of the Opletnya Member, Sfrazen
section, 53.2 m, elementary sequence 25; c — trough cross-bedded grainstone, uppermost part of the Opletnya Member, Lakatnik section,
128.8 m, elementary sequence 67; d — cross-bedded packstone with prograding coset of small-scale planar cross-bedding (between arrows),
angular and rounded intraclasts (surrounded) in lower part, and reactivation surface above. Lower part of highstand deposits, Sfrazen section,
51.5 m, elementary sequence 25; e — massive packstone with rounded, pebble-sized intraclasts from the lowermost part of the Opletnya
Member, Sfrazen section, 2.8 m, elementary sequence 2; f — transgressive package of bioclastic, horizontally laminated packstone partially
(between white arrows) to almost completely (between black arrows) bioturbated, with isolated pebble-sized intraclasts (outlined) along
a small-scale erosional surface (E2, dashed line). A similar erosional surface (E1), cutting into slightly bioturbated and dolomitic limestone,
marks the base of an elementary sequence. Sfrazen section, 81.6 m, elementary sequence 41. The position in meters is given starting from
the base of the Opletnya Member, the numbering of the elementary sequences is according to Fig. 7.
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Synsedimentary deformation, some of it with sigmoidal
geometry, is among the often observed features in wacke- and
mudstones (Figs. 6a, 7), and beds with this texture are com-
mon in the lower part of the Opletnya Member. Its amplitude
commonly is in the range of 5–15 cm, but in some beds may
reach or even exceed 40 cm. Several internally deformed beds
may be vertically stacked (Fig. 6b). The upper bounding sur-
face of the deformation structures may be flat but more often
is slightly concave-up. These structures can be traced laterally
over several tens of meters, whereby their amplitude gradually
decreases and finally disappears (Fig. 6d). Small- and meso-
scale slump folding is another type of synsedimentary defor-
mation common in wacke- and mudstones, observed in almost
the whole Opletnya Member. In some places, direct contact
between sigmoidal and slump folding structures can be
observed (Fig. 6c). The geometry of these structures varies
Fig. 5. Dolomites in the Opletnya Member: a — dolo-wackestone with chaotic soft-sediment deformation and subsequent bioturbation,
Lakatnik section, 82.90 m, elementary sequence 42; b — dome-shape stromatolite (below arrows), developed in the uppermost part of
the fourth medium-scale sequence, Lakatnik section, 110.3 m, elementary sequence 60; c — symmetric small ripples of packstone (arrows),
surrounded by mud- to wackstone in a dolomitized bed-set. Sfrazen section, 109.5 m, elementary sequence 60; d — tepee structure from the
upper part of small-scale sequence 12, Sfrazen section, 49.1 m, elementary sequence 23; e — matrix-supported floatstone rich in pebble-sized,
subrounded intraclasts, Sfrazen section, 49.3 m, elementary sequence 24; f — clast-supported lag deposit of conglomerate, Sfrazen section,
same level as (e). The position in meters refers to the base of the Opletnya Member, the elementary and small-scale sequence numbering is
according to Fig. 7.
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from quite symmetrical folding (Fig. 6f) to chaotic (Fig. 5a).
Most commonly these slump folds have amplitudes in the
range of 30 to 50 cm, but in some cases may exceed 2 m
(Fig. 6e). These features are interpreted as having formed by
sliding of soft but cohesive sediment, possibly by instabilities
on channel margins (Hardie & Garrett 1977), or induced by
the occasional impact of storm waves or earthquakes (seismi-
tes; Montenat et al. 2007).
Although wacke- and mudstones are common in the stu-
died sections, this lithology is dominant in the lower part
of the Opletnya Member. Mudstones mark the deepest
and/or most quiet sedimentary environments, with restricted
water circulation. The intense bioturbation supports this
interpretation. The nodularity often is connected with
increased clay content as a result of increased terrigenous
supply.
Fig. 6. Synsedimentary deformations in the Opletnya Member: a — 40 cm thick bed with sigmoidal structure from the middle part of
the medium-scale sequence, Lakatnik section, 15.3 m, elementary sequence 7; b — two stacked beds (between dashed lines and arrows)
with sigmoidal structure and another one above them. Sfrazen section, 13.1 m, elementary sequence 6; c — wackestone bed with sigmoidal
structure (between arrows) overlain by a mudstone bed (between dashed lines) with slumps, Sfrazen section, 24.1 m, elementary sequence 12;
d — 12 cm thick bed with sigmoidal structure (between dashed lines) with concave top surface that pinches out laterally (arrow). Hammer for
scale, Lakatnik section, 12.0 m, elementary sequence 6; e — about 2 m thick wacke- to mudstone bed with slumps (between arrows) in its lower
part (hammer for scale), Sfrazen section, 28.2 m, elementary sequence 14; f — detail of the same level shown in (e). The position in meters is
from the base of the Opletnya Member, the elementary sequence numbering is according to Fig. 7.
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Packstones, grainstones, rudstones, and floatstones
Bioclasts, mudstone lithoclasts, ooids as well as a high
amount of peloids are the typical components of the pack- and
grainstones. Rudstones and floatstones are very rare; they con-
tain pebble- to cobble-sized intraclasts, the roundness of which
varies in a wide range. The intraclasts are either chaotically
distributed (Fig. 4e), or they occur in the bottom set (Fig. 4f)
or on the foreset surfaces of cross-beds (Fig. 4d). Lag deposits
and imbrication structures are also observed. In some cases,
the surfaces of the intraclasts are not sharp and show a gradual
transition to the hosting material, which could be the result of
re-sedimentation of semi-lithified material, or incipient disin-
tegration of the semi-consolidated beds (Fig. 4e). Some beds
are strongly bioturbated (Fig. 4f) and may show overpacking
due to early compaction. Partial dolomitization is more com-
mon in packstones than in grainstones.
Packstones, grainstones, and rudstones/floatstones com-
monly form massive beds. The most prominent sedimentary
structure is the well-developed cross-bedding — low-angle,
planar and trough type — commonly with thick lamination
(Fig. 4c, d, f). Small-scale cross-bedding displays both wavy
bedding (Fig. 5c) and current ripples (Fig. 4d). Reactivation
surfaces are also common (Fig. 4d). The set thickness ranges
between a few cm to a few tens of cm, while that of the cosets
may reach several meters (Fig. 7). Such sediment bodies can
form regionally traceable bed packages, which have been con-
sidered as stratigraphic markers (Tronkov 1968). The cross-
bedding direction varies in a wide range — within one coset as
well as along the same level in both sections (Fig. 7).
The pack- and grainstone beds indicate an active hydrody-
namic sedimentary environment that led to the development
and lateral migration of different types of bars and shoals.
The variety of morphology, scale, and orientation of the cross-
bedding, the reactivation and accretion surfaces, and the inter-
calation of these features indicate highly variable high-energy
settings typical of shallow-water environments. The presence
of intraclasts, some of them semi-lithified, implies an almost
permanent subaqueous erosion by waves and currents. Wavy
bedding and the variable orientation of the cross-beds suggest
a tidal influence (e.g., Reineck & Singh 1975; Gonzales &
Eberli 1997).
Dolomites
The partially or completely dolomitized packstones, wacke-
stones, and mudstones have an uneven distribution in the stu-
died sections. They can be observed as thin to thick beds, but
may also stack into packages with thicknesses of 2.65–2.80 m
or even 3.25–3.55 m that intercalate with several very thin
beds of mixed carbonate-terrigenous rocks (Fig. 7). In the
middle and upper parts of the Opletnya Member, almost com-
pletely dolomitized sets of 9.50 to 14.80 m can be observed.
Although massive and laminated structures are most common
for these rocks, they also are associated with tepees and flat
pebbles that form local lags (Fig. 5d). Nodular structures are
also present. Lenses with chaotically oriented lithoclasts
(Fig. 5e, f), some of them with imbrication structures, are com-
mon. In some beds, most often dolo-packstones and rare
dolo-grainstones, different types of cross-bedding can be
observed (Fig. 5c), and intraclasts may form short bands lying
on the foreset lamina. Stromatolites with different morpholo-
gies, developed in dolomitized mud- and wackestone beds, are
observed at several levels in the studied sections (Figs. 5b, 7).
The dolomite-dominated intervals are interpreted as the shal-
lowest, high-salinity sedimentary environment in the Opletnya
Member. Desiccation cracks and tepee structures mark epi-
sodes of subaerial exposure, indicating the establishment of
tidal flats under a semi-arid climate. These climatic conditions
are favorable for microbially-mediated dolomitizaton of
microbial mats (e.g., Petrash et al. 2017) and/or early-diage-
netic reflux dolomitization (e.g., Adams et al. 2018). However,
no detailed geochemical studies were preformed and the pos-
sibility of late-diagenetic dolomitization cannot be excluded
either (e.g., Lukoczki et al. 2019). Storm events and/or strong
tidal currents ripped up cohesive sediment, incipient hard-
grounds, or microbial mats to form flat-pebble conglomerates
and lag deposits (e.g., Hardie & Ginsburg 1977; Hillgärtner et
al. 2002).
Erosion surfaces
Other common features of the Opletnya Member are the
erosional surfaces. Often they demonstrate channel morpho-
logy (Fig. 8a–c). In many cases, the flanks of these channels
are very steep to almost vertical, indicating a relatively
advanced degree of cohesion and early lithification of the
sedi ment into which the channel was cut (Fig. 8b). The erosion
surfaces either separate beds of different lithology (Fig. 8a, b
and d), or they occur within a set of lithologically monotonous
beds and are underlain by thin layers or lenses of mixed silici-
clastic–carbonate or fully siliciclastic material (Fig. 8c).
Stacking of multiple erosional surfaces is documented at
several levels of the profile. The erosional depth varies
between 5–15 cm and several tens of centimeters, but in some
cases reaches even 60–80 cm (Figs. 7 and 8a). Lag deposits
draping the erosional surfaces are observed in some cases.
Firmgrounds and hardgrounds
Firm- and hardgrounds on top of dolomitic limestone and
dolomite beds are also observed (Figs. 7 and 8d). They are
irregular, with amplitudes of several centimeters. Borings
belong to Balanoglossites and Trypanites, characteristic
ichno taxa of Middle Triassic ramp settings (Knaust 1998,
2007; Knaust et al. 2012; Chrząstek 2013).
Lakatnik Member
Limestones, thick-bedded pack- and grainstones, are also
dominant in the Lakatnik Member (upper Mogila Formation).
This member is furthermore characterized by levels rich in
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Fig. 7. Sequence- and cyclostratigraphic interpretation of the Opletnya Member (Mogila Formation) in the Lakatnik and Sfrazen sections:
a — lowermost part of the Opletnya Member (including the Tenuis Bed); b — lower part of the Opletnya Member (including the Zitolub Bed);
c — middle part of the Opletnya Member (including the Sfrazen Bed); d — upper part of the Opletnya Member (including the Sedmochislenitsi
Bed and the prominent Anisian sequence boundary An1); e — uppermost part of the Opletnya Member (top Sedmochislenitsi Bed to the boun-
dary between the Opletnya and Lakatnik members). The maximum amplitude (A, in cm) is indicated for the prominent erosional surfaces.
SB: sequence boundary; TS: transgressive surface; MFS: maximum-flooding surface.
a
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Fig. 7. (continued) Sequence- and cyclostratigraphic interpretation of the Opletnya Member (Mogila Formation) in the Lakatnik and Sfrazen
sections: a — lowermost part of the Opletnya Member (including the Tenuis Bed); b — lower part of the Opletnya Member (including
the Zitolub Bed); c — middle part of the Opletnya Member (including the Sfrazen Bed); d — upper part of the Opletnya Member (including
the Sedmochislenitsi Bed and the prominent Anisian sequence boundary An1); e — uppermost part of the Opletnya Member (top Sedmochislenitsi
Bed to the boun dary between the Opletnya and Lakatnik members). The maximum amplitude (A, in cm) is indicated for the prominent
erosional surfaces. SB: sequence boundary; TS: transgressive surface; MFS: maximum-flooding surface.
b
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c
Fig. 7. (continued) Sequence- and cyclostratigraphic interpretation of the Opletnya Member (Mogila Formation) in the Lakatnik and Sfrazen
sections: a — lowermost part of the Opletnya Member (including the Tenuis Bed); b — lower part of the Opletnya Member (including
the Zitolub Bed); c — middle part of the Opletnya Member (including the Sfrazen Bed); d — upper part of the Opletnya Member (including
the Sedmochislenitsi Bed and the prominent Anisian sequence boundary An1); e — uppermost part of the Opletnya Member (top Sedmochislenitsi
Bed to the boun dary between the Opletnya and Lakatnik members). The maximum amplitude (A, in cm) is indicated for the prominent
erosional surfaces. SB: sequence boundary; TS: transgressive surface; MFS: maximum-flooding surface.
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d
Fig. 7. (continued) Sequence- and cyclostratigraphic interpretation of the Opletnya Member (Mogila Formation) in the Lakatnik and Sfrazen
sections: a — lowermost part of the Opletnya Member (including the Tenuis Bed); b — lower part of the Opletnya Member (including
the Zitolub Bed); c — middle part of the Opletnya Member (including the Sfrazen Bed); d — upper part of the Opletnya Member (including
the Sedmochislenitsi Bed and the prominent Anisian sequence boundary An1); e — uppermost part of the Opletnya Member (top Sedmochislenitsi
Bed to the boun dary between the Opletnya and Lakatnik members). The maximum amplitude (A, in cm) is indicated for the prominent
erosional surfaces. SB: sequence boundary; TS: transgressive surface; MFS: maximum-flooding surface.
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e
Fig. 7. (continued) Sequence- and cyclostratigraphic interpretation of the Opletnya Member (Mogila Formation) in the Lakatnik and Sfrazen
sections: a — lowermost part of the Opletnya Member (including the Tenuis Bed); b — lower part of the Opletnya Member (including
the Zitolub Bed); c — middle part of the Opletnya Member (including the Sfrazen Bed); d — upper part of the Opletnya Member (including
the Sedmochislenitsi Bed and the prominent Anisian sequence boundary An1); e — uppermost part of the Opletnya Member (top Sedmochislenitsi
Bed to the boun dary between the Opletnya and Lakatnik members). The maximum amplitude (A, in cm) is indicated for the prominent
erosional surfaces. SB: sequence boundary; TS: transgressive surface; MFS: maximum-flooding surface.
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crinoids. Lenses of dolomitic limestones and dolomites are
intercalated.
Babino Formation
The lower part of the Babino Formation (Zimevitsa
Member) is dominated by nodular, clayey, rare massive and
laminated, often bioturbated wacke- to mudstones (Fig. 9c)
that alternate with mainly bioclastic, massive to cross-bedded
packstones (Fig. 9a, b, d). Along the base of the unit, as well
as in several distinct beds above, levels rich in brachiopods
and crinoids are observed (Figs. 9b, d, 10). The volume of
mixed siliciclastic-carbonate rocks is minor. Synsedimentary
deformation structures are common. At around 10 m from
the base of the unit, an erosional, karstified surface with
evidence for subaerial exposure is observed (Fig. 9a).
The upper half of the Babino Formation (Zgorigrad Member)
is formed by mainly nodular, thin- to medium-bedded wacke-
and packstones that contain conodonts, bivalves, and
brachiopods.
The Babino Formation is covered by the massive to thick-
bedded dolomites with crinoids of the Milanovo Formation.
Sequence stratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy
Concepts
The sequence- and cyclostratigraphic interpretation and the
correlation of the studied sections follow the concepts propo-
sed by Strasser et al. (1999). The sequence-stratigraphic nomen -
clature is that of Catuneanu et al. (2009), and this nomenclature
is applied independent of the scale of the sequences (Posa-
mentier et al. 1992; Catuneanu 2019). Sequence boun daries
(SB) are indicated by the shallowest facies and may in addi-
tion be expressed by an erosive surface if sea level dropped
below the previously accumulated sediment. Transgressive
sur faces (TS) may be erosive if there was ravinement, and in
any case mark the beginning of a deepening-up facies trend
(transgressive deposits). Maximum-flooding surfaces (MFS)
are expressed by the deepest facies and display bioturbation or
hardgrounds if sedimentation rate was reduced. Shallowing-up
highstand deposits then lead to the following sequence
boundary.
Elementary sequences are the smallest units in which facies
trends and sedimentary structures indicate a cycle of sea-level
Fig. 8. Erosional surfaces in the Opletnya Member: a — two erosional surfaces (dashed lines), partly developed in dolomitized limestone,
the lower one forming a channel over 50 cm deep that marks a sequence boundary, Lakatnik section, 9.2 m, elementary sequence 6; b — small-
scale channel with steep flanks (dashed line), filled by limestones developed in the uppermost part of dolomites. The channel is 12 cm deep,
Lakatnik section, 14.2 m, elementary sequence 7; c — small-scale channel (hammer for scale) that laterally corresponds to a level with sig-
moidal synsedimentary deformation, Lakatnik section, 11.9 m, elementary sequence 6; d — hardground surface at the top of highstand dolo-
mitic limestones (black arrows), covered by bioclastic grainstones. The highstand deposits contain gagate intraclasts (above white arrows).
The top of the bed appears broken, with reddish sediment infill, Sfrazen section, 25.4 m, elementary sequence 13. The position in meters refers
to the base of the Opletnya Member, the elementary sequence numbering is according to Fig. 7.
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change. Small-scale sequences are composed of several (in
many cases five) elementary sequences and generally display
first a deepening then a shallowing trend, with the shallowest
facies at the boundaries. Several (2 to 4 in the studied sections)
small-scale sequences compose a medium-scale sequence,
which again displays a general deepening-shallowing trend of
facies evolution and the relatively shallowest facies at its
boundaries. If several elementary sequences compose an inter-
val of shallowest or deepest facies, a sequence-boundary zone
respectively a maximum-flooding zone is defined (Montañez
& Osleger 1993).
Small, meter-scale depositional units are often called
“cycles” if they are stacked in the sedimentary record. Here
we use the term “sequence” because this allows better defi-
ning the facies evolution within them and interpreting the sea-
level changes that caused it. If such sequences are bounded by
prominent marine flooding surfaces, they can be compared to
the “parasequences” of van Wagoner et al. (1990), although
these were originally defined in siliciclastic systems. We use
the term “cycle” for the cyclical or periodic processes that
controlled the formation of the sequences.
If chronostratigraphic tie points allow estimating the dura-
tion of the studied sections, and if the hierarchical stacking of
the depositional sequences reflects the ratios of orbital
(Milankovitch) cyclicity, an interpretation of the evolution of
the depositional environments can be proposed at a high time
resolution: the elementary sequences would correspond to
the 20-kyr precession cycle, the small-scale sequences to
the 100-kyr short eccentricity cycle, and the medium-scale
sequences to the 405-kyr long eccentricity cycle. These orbital
cycles translated into sea-level cycles through complex atmo-
spheric and oceanic feed-back processes (Strasser 2018). How-
ever, autocyclic processes independent of orbital cycles may
have been superimposed, making the interpretation more com-
plicated. Time-series analyses are commonly applied to demon-
strate the recording of orbital cyclicity (e.g., Hinnov 2013).
In the present case, however, the complexity of the facies
changes on the shallow ramp precludes such an approach.
Elementary sequences
In both studied sections of the Opletnya Member (lower part
of the Mogila Formation), 69 elementary sequences were
identified and correlated (Fig. 7). These are generally grouped
by five to form 14 small-scale sequences. Two or four small-
scale sequences are bundled into 5 medium-scale sequences,
Fig. 9. Lithology of the lower Zimevitsa Member (lower Babino Formation) in the Sfrazen section: a — highly irregular paleokarst surface
(arrows) implying prolonged subaerial exposure, overlain by bioclastic limestone; b — low-angle cross-bedded limestone, transgressive depo-
sits of an elementary sequence; c — plan view of nodular wackestone from the middle part of an elementary sequence; d — crinoid columnal
segment of Holocrinus dubius from transgressive deposits in the lower part of the Zimevitsa Member. All photos are from elementary sequence 6
in Fig. 10.
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in which three parts can be recognized: transgressive, maxi-
mum-flooding, and highstand deposits. Elementary and small-
scale sequences are recognized also in the lowermost part of
the Zimevitsa Member (lower part of the Babino Formation).
The elementary sequences, the smallest cyclic units docu-
mented, are defined by their bounding surfaces, composition,
facies trends, and sedimentary structures that indicate a cycle
of sea-level change. The base of each elementary sequence is
marked by the shallowest facies, and/or by a laterally traceable
erosional surface. Most of the elementary sequences can be
subdivided into three parts — a lower part that represents the
transgressive stage, a middle part containing the maximum-
flooding surface, and an upper part representing the highstand
stage. The facies composition and thickness of these parts
varies depending on the position of the elementary sequence
within the small-scale and especially the medium-scale
sequence it belongs to (Strasser et al. 1999).
In the lower (transgressive) part of a medium-scale se quence,
the sequence boundary and the transgressive surface of the ele-
mentary sequences are very close to each other or even amal-
gamated because lowstand deposits are very thin or not
recorded due to limited accommodation on the shallow ramp
(Fig. 11). Intraclasts, lithologically identical to the rocks
immediately below the erosional surface, indicate reworking
during transgression of previously cemented sediment.
Massive or cross-bedded pack- and grainstones represent
Fig. 10. Cyclostratigraphic interpretation of the lower Babino Formation (Zimevitsa Member), Sfrazen section. The legend is according to Fig. 7.
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shallow bars or shoals that formed during transgression, and
they may form 30–50 % of the volume of the elementary
sequences. The maximum-flooding surface marks the top of
these beds or can be identified above by the deepest facies
and/or intense bioturbation. In the early highstand part of these
elementary sequences, massive, laminated or nodular, often
bioturbated wacke- and mudstones dominate. The amount of
terrigenous components increases and forms thin beds of
marls or of mixed siliciclastic-carbonate sediment. In some
cases, the uppermost, late highstand part is dolomitic lime-
stone or (rarely) dolomite (Fig. 11). In other cases, the late
highstand is formed by marly wacke- and mudstone beds.
In the studied sections, the average thickness of the elemen-
tary sequences from the transgressive part of the medium-scale
sequences is in range of 2.1–2.2 m. The thickest elementary
sequences (3.9 to 4.25 m) are measured in the lowermost and
uppermost medium-scale sequences of the Opletnya Member
(Fig. 7). A gradual but steady decreasing in the average thick-
ness (from 2.3 to 1.5 m) of the elementary sequences is
observed in the transgressive part of the first four medium-
scale sequences.
In the maximum-flooding to early highstand parts of the
medium-scale sequences, the elementary sequences are domi-
nated by wacke- and mudstones while pack- and grainstones
occur in lesser amounts (Fig. 12). Once again, the pack- and
grainstone beds occupy mainly the base of these units and
rarely occupy the whole transgressive part, where the amount
of the wacke- and mudstone gradually increases. Intraclasts
are rare and small in size. The transgressive surface of these
elementary sequences can be very close to the sequence
boundary or coincides with it. However, at the top of elemen-
tary sequence 7 in the Sfrazen section, the lower erosion sur-
face is interpreted as the sequence boundary, while the second
erosion surface represents the transgressive (ravinement) sur-
face. Thus, a thin lowstand deposit is present. The maximum-
flooding surface is associated with increasing intensity of
bioturbation and, in some cases, synsedimentary deformation.
The highstand interval, dominated by massive or laminated
mud- and wackestones, forms 70–80 % of the elementary
sequences. Dolomitization of their uppermost part is rare.
However, sediment containing terrigenous siliciclastics forms
thicker and laterally traceable units.
In the highstand parts of the medium-scale sequences,
the transgressive deposits of the elementary sequences are
repre sented by pack- and grainstones, and/or by mixed silici-
clastic–carbonate or even claystone beds (Fig. 13). Dolomite
and dolomitic limestones are common. The sequence boun-
dary is represented by desiccation cracks, tepee structures, or
an erosional surface. The transgressive surface, where it can
be identified, is above the sequence boundary, making room
for thin lowstand deposits. The maximum-flooding surface
cannot always be recognized. Wacke- and mudstones domi-
nate the upper part of the units. In many of these elementary
sequences, almost the whole volume is represented by dolo-
mite or partially dolomitized limestones.
The average thickness of the elementary sequences within
the highstand parts of medium-scale sequences is around 2.05 m.
This value decreases in the lower (early) stage of the highstand
part to 1.3–1.5 m, while in the upper (late) part it increases to
1.8–1.9 m.
Fig. 11. Elementary sequences from the transgressive part of the lowermost medium-scale sequences of the Opletnya Member. Note that SB
and TS are amalgamated and represent a ravinement surface. Elementary and small-scale sequence numbering and legend as in Fig. 7.
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In the Lakatnik Member, it is not possible to clearly define
elementary sequences. In the lowermost part of the Zimevitsa
Member (Babino Formation), the elementary sequences are
less complex than those in the Opletnya Member. Their base is
marked by a transgressive surface (Fig. 10). Erosional sur-
faces are rare. The sequence boundaries generally are not
developed (elementary sequences defined by transgressive
surfaces; Strasser et al. 1999), with the exception of the ones
at the base of elementary sequences 2 and 6. The transgressive
part is presented by massive, laminated to low-angle cross-bed-
ded bio- and lithoclastic pack- to grainstones (Fig. 9b). Terri-
genous fines increase from the maximum-flooding surface
into the highstand part of the units, where massive, laminated
and nodular wacke- and mudstones predominate (Fig. 9c).
Bioturbation is very common. The average thickness of the
ele mentary sequences is similar to that in the Opletnya
Member and is in the range of 2–2.2 m.
Small-scale sequences
Within the Opletnya Member, the elementary sequences,
grouped into sets of five, form a succession of 14 small-scale
sequences (Fig. 7). Their base very often is marked by a pro-
nounced erosional surface and/or a lag of intraclasts. The mea-
sured erosional amplitude of these surfaces ranges from a few
centimeters to decimeters and, in individual cases such as
at the limit between small-scale sequences 12 and 13 in the
Sfrazen section, may reach more than 70 cm (Figs. 7d and 13).
Stacking of several erosional surfaces within one elementary
sequence situated at the base of the small-scale sequences is
also common (Figs. 4f, 8a). Similar erosional stacking can be
observed along the boundary between the first two elementary
sequences in the second small-scale sequence (Fig. 8b).
From the base upwards, the small-scale sequences display
first a deepening then a shallowing trend. The boundary
between them is always marked by the shallowest facies. Most
commonly, their lower part is dominated by limestones and/or
partially dolomitized limestones — litho- and bioclastic or
ooid-dominated pack- and/or grainstones (Figs. 4e, f, 7, 8a).
Massive, planar and trough cross-bedding with lags of intra-
clasts is common (Fig. 4c). Reactivation and lateral accretion
surfaces are observed. Different types of small-scale cross-bed-
ding, indicating wave or current hydrodynamic regimes, are
also typical for this part. The paleotransport directions vary in
a wide range and in one and the same elementary sequence
almost opposite directions can be observed (elementary
sequences 21, 22, and 31 in Fig. 7b, c).
Upsection, the thickness of the pack- and grainstones in
the small-scale sequences decreases and the amount of
wackestone beds increases, marking a deepening facies trend.
The amount of nodular and finely laminated beds increases.
Also, a gradual increase in frequency and intensity of biotur-
bations is observed (Figs. 4a, 5a). The evidences for erosional
processes gradually decrease. Firm- and hardground surfaces
are developed (Figs. 7, 8d).
The turn-around to a shallowing facies trend is marked by
the gradual increase of the amount of terrigenous material and
dolomite, of the frequency of erosional features, and of syn-
sedimentary deformations (for example small-scale sequences
2, 5, 6, 8 and 12 in Fig. 7). In many cases, the amount of pack-
stone beds also increases. At such turning points, in the lower
part of the Opletnya Member, the maximum bed thickness
(40 cm) with sigmoidal structures is recorded. Commonly,
the shallowing-upwards trend is accompanied by an increase
in erosional and synsedimentary deformation structures, for ming
in some places a stacked pattern (Fig. 6e, f; Fig. 7b: elementary
Fig. 12. Elementary sequences in the maximum-flooding zone of the lowermost medium-scale sequence of the Opletnya Member. Elementary
and small-scale sequence numbering and legend as in Fig. 7.
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sequence 25). Laterally, the intensity of these features may
change rapidly: while in one section they are quite prominent,
in the other they are attenuated (e.g., elementary sequences 14,
15, and 30 in Fig. 7a, b, c). In dolomite-dominated small-scale
sequences, different types of lag deposits (Fig. 5e, f) are com-
monly associated with tepees (Fig. 5d) and desiccation cracks.
In this shallowing part, the finely laminated and nodular struc-
tures still dominate (Fig. 4b), but small-scale cross-bedding
also is common (Figs. 4d, 5c).
The pattern described above varies within the studied sec-
tions. For example, bioclastic to intraclastic packstones may
predominate almost entirely in one small-scale sequence
(Fig. 7c: small-scale sequence 7) while in other cases (Fig. 7c, d:
small-scale sequences 9 and 12) the dolomitic lithology is
more prominent.
The thickness of the small-scale sequences within the Oplet-
nya Member varies in the range of 6.7–14.4 m (average 9.6 m).
Only in small-scale sequences 3, 5, and 13, the thickness is
over 11 m (Fig. 7a, b, d, e). Depending on to which part of
a medium-scale sequence the small-scale sequences belong to,
a persistent trend in the thickness of the elementary sequences
is observed. For example, within the transgressive part of the
medium-scale sequences, the small-scale sequences demon-
strate a symmetrical pattern with the thinnest elementary
sequences in the middle (Fig. 7). Around the maximum-floo-
ding and early highstand part of the medium-scale sequences,
the thickness of the elementary sequences within the small-
scale sequences decreases, while in their late highstand parts
of the medium-scale sequences the small-scale sequences
contain thicker elementary sequences in their upper part (for
example small-scale sequence 8; Fig. 7c).
One small-scale sequence, bounded by erosional surfaces,
was identified in the lowermost Babino Formation (Zimevitsa
Member). The thickness of the elementary sequences within it
decreases upwards from 3.3 m to 1.15 m (Fig. 10). The total
thickness of this small-scale sequence is 11.65 m.
Medium-scale sequences
In both studied sections of the Opletnya Member, five
medium- scale sequences have been identified, each subdi-
vided into three parts — transgressive, maximum-flooding,
and highstand deposits. The number of small-scale sequences
within them, however, is not equal and varies from two to four
(Fig. 7).
In all cases, the base of a medium-scale sequence is a promi-
nent, laterally correlatable erosional surface. In the lowermost
part, lithoclastic, bioclastic and/or ooid-dominated medium-
scale transgressive deposits predominate. The small-scale
sequences within this lower part are also developed mainly in
transgressive facies, where limestones, often cross-bedded,
predominate but dolomitic limestones are also present.
Fig. 13. Elementary sequences from the highstand part of the fourth medium-scale sequence of the Opletnya Member. Elementary and small-
scale sequence numbering and legend as in Fig. 7.
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Intraclasts are also common and occupy the foreset laminae in
cross-bedded structures but also form isolated lags. In almost
all medium-scale sequences, the measured paleotransport
indicators (planar and trough cross-bedding, reactivation and
accretion surfaces) show a unidirectional pattern (towards
the north-northeast; Fig. 7). Only in one case, at the base of
the uppermost (fifth) medium-scale sequence, there are indi-
cations about short-term (and probably local) south-south-
westward directions.
In the upper parts of the transgressive intervals of the medium-
scale sequences, the amount of wacke- to mudstone beds and
of beds with nodular structure and bioturbation increases. This
trend reaches its maximum in the maximum-flooding zone.
At the same time, an increase of the intensity and the scale of
synsedimentary deformations is observed. Firm- and hard-
ground development is also documented. From here upwards,
medium-scale sequences commonly display an increasing
diversification of the sedimentary paleotransport directions,
and in many cases almost opposite directions can be observed
in one and the same stratigraphic level.
In the highstand part of the medium-scale sequences, there
commonly is an increase in the amount of dolomite and eva-
porites. Desiccation cracks and tepee structure are also com-
mon. The amount and the size of the intraclasts increases as
well. Their roundness varies in a wide range, both vertically in
a section and laterally. Occasionally, rudstone fills small-scale
channels.
In the studied sections, the first medium-scale sequence is
well defined and includes small-scale sequences 1 to 4, and
elementary sequences 1 to 20. Small-scale sequences 5 and 6
compose a second medium-scale sequence. The thick high-
energy deposits in small-scale sequences 7 and 8 then suggest
the transgressive part of a third medium-scale sequence. Its
top is difficult to place, but the relatively thin and complex
elementary sequence 50 with an erosion surface at its base
(Fig. 7d) may be interpreted as the limit to a fourth medium-
scale sequence. This fourth sequence comprises small-scale
sequences 11 and 12, and its top is defined by the prominent
erosion surface An1. The top of the fifth medium-scale
sequence cannot be defined in the studied sections and may be
within the Lakatnik Member.
Cyclostratigraphic interpretation
The newly obtained biostratigraphical data (Ajdanlijsky et
al. 2018; this study) allow estimating the time range of the
sedi
mentary cycles documented in the studied sections.
It mostly concerns the boundaries of the Aegean substage in
the study area. Its base is defined in the uppermost part of
the fluvial succession of the Petrohan Terrigenous Group, just
below the base of the Svidol Formation by palynological data
(Ajdanlijsky et al. 2018). The top of the substage is located in
the uppermost part of the Opletnya Member of the Mogila
Formation, as inferred from the last appearance of early
Anisian palynomorphs (Fig. 3). The upper boundary of the
Aegean is situated at the top of elementary sequence 60 of
small-scale sequence 12 (Fig. 7d). The total number of ele-
mentary sequences recognized for the Aegean substage
(Ajdanlijsky et al. 2018; this study) is 80 (1 in the uppermost
Petrohan Terrigenous Group, 19 in the Svidol Formation, 60 in
the Opletnya Member). Erosion certainly occurred at the
boundaries of some elementary sequences as indicated by
the irregular surfaces and the reworking (Fig. 7), but the regu-
lar stacking pattern does not suggest that entire sequences are
missing.
Comparing this result to the new Triassic chart by Haq (2018)
that proposes a duration of about 1.7 Myr for the Aegean,
the average time duration of a single elementary sequence
would be approximately 21.25 kyr. However, according to
Ogg et al. (2016), the Aegean had a duration of 1.5 Myr, sug-
gesting a duration of 18.75 kyr per elementary sequence. In
the Middle Triassic, the periodicities of the orbital precession
cycle had peaks at ca. 18 and 22 kyr (Berger et al. 1989), with
an average of 20 kyr (Hinnov 2018). This is close to the esti-
mated duration of the elementary sequences recorded in the
Opletnya Member, which are consequently interpreted as
being related to the precession cycle. The fact that 5 elemen-
tary cycles compose a small-scale sequence suggests that
these were controlled by the short eccentricity cycle of 100 kyr
(Hinnov 2018).
In the studied sections, the medium-scale sequences have
been defined based on their lithology. The first one is well
defined with 4 small-scale (100-kyr) and 20 elementary
(20-kyr) sequences. Medium-scale sequences are in many
cases induced by the long eccentricity cycle of 405 kyr (e.g.,
Strasser et al. 2000; Boulila et al. 2008). However, the inter-
pretation of the other medium-scale sequences, comprising
two or four small-scale sequences, is less clear: they may have
resulted from a combination of allocyclic and autocyclic pro-
cesses, obscuring a clear signal of the long eccentricity cycle.
The transgressive-regressive facies trends within the sequen-
ces of all scales imply that these were — at least partly — con-
trolled by sea-level changes. Furthermore, the stacking of
these sequences reflecting the hierarchy and durations of
the orbital (Milankovitch) cycles suggests that the sea-level
changes were in tune with the climate changes induced by
the orbital cycles (e.g., Strasser 2018). However, the comple-
xity of facies and sedimentary structures seen in the Opletnya
Member also implies that additional factors such as lateral
migration of sediment bodies were active.
Palynofacies
Concept
The term palynofacies was first introduced by Combaz in
1964 to describe the total acid-resistant organic matter content
of sedimentary rocks within a specific depositional environ-
ment (Combaz 1964, 1980). Later, Tyson (1993, 1995) defined
palynofacies analysis as a methodology involving the iden-
tification of individual palynomorphs, plant debris, and
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AJDANLIJSKY, STRASSER and GÖTZ
GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA
, 2019, 70, 4, 325–354
amorphous components, their absolute and relative propor-
tions, size spectra, and preservation states.
A number of sedimentary organic matter classifications and
parameters are used in palynofacies analysis, reviewed in
Tyson (1987, 1993, 1995). In this study, sedimentary organic
matter is divided into a marine (autochthonous) fraction
including marine phytoplankton and foraminiferal test linings,
and a continental (allochthonous) fraction composed of pollen
grains, spores, and phytoclasts (Rameil et al. 2000). The here
used palynofacies parameters to decipher transgressive-re-
gressive trends within the studied succession are: (1) the ratio
of continental to marine constituents (CONT/MAR); (2) the ratio
of opaque to translucent phytoclasts (OP/TR); (3) the phyto-
clast particle size and shape (equidimensional to blade-shaped;
ED/BS); and (4) the relative proportion and species diversity
of marine phytoplankton.
Palynofacies analysis
Within the studied Anisian succession, long-term transgres-
sive–regressive trends are clearly documented in the CONT/
MAR ratio and phytoplankton abundance with three distinct
acritarch events (Fig. 3). A first marine pulse during the early
Anisian (Aegean) was recognized by an acritarch peak in
the lowermost Opletnya Member (basal part of the Mogila
Formation) below the Tenuis Bed (Ajdanlijsky et al. 2018),
characterized by a low-diversity marine invertebrate fauna
(Tronkov 1968). A second acritarch peak occurs in the upper
part of the Mogila Formation (base of the Lakatnik Member).
The third acritarch peak in the Zimevitsa Member (lower part
of the Babino Formation) is the most prominent signal accom-
panied by the highest diversity of marine invertebrates, inclu-
ding brachiopods and crinoids.
Short-term changes of sea level are documented in the chan-
ges of sedimentary organic matter content within sedimentary
sequences: changes of terrestrial input, preservation and sor-
ting of phytoclasts, and prominent phytoplankton peaks indi-
cating major flooding phases. In the Lakatnik section (Fig. 14),
a 4.5 m thick elementary sequence shows marine plankton
percentages between 5.1 and 10.7 % in the basal grainstones
(samples 1–3), the highest percentage occurring in the basal
lithoclast bed. Translucent phytoclasts of different sizes and
shapes are common. Upsection, a marked increase in phyto-
plankton is observed (samples 4, 5), with peak abundance
(23.5 %) in sample 4, also characterized by the highest ratios
of opaque to translucent (OP/TR) and equidimensional to
blade-shaped (ED/BS) phytoclasts. High percentages of
marine plankton and high OP/TR and ED/BS ratios continue
in samples 6 and 7, while the uppermost part of the sequence
(samples 8–9) shows low plankton percentages (3.6 to 6.5 %).
Within the phytoplankton group, acritarchs are most abundant
in samples 4 and 5, while prasinophytes are dominant in sam-
ples 8 and 9, and they are the only plankton group present in
sample 10. Foraminiferal test linings are recorded in samples
3, 4, 5 and 7. Bisaccate pollen grains are the dominant group
within the terrestrial particles, and spores are rare.
The basal grainstones (samples 1–3) are interpreted as trans-
gressive deposits, showing a high amount of “fresh” translu-
cent phytoclasts with a huge variety in sizes and shapes. A first
plankton peak in the basal lithoclast bed marks the initial
transgressive pulse. The sequence boundary might be directly
overlain by the transgressive surface, which explains the lack
of lowstand deposits. The level of sample 4 seems to indicate
the maximum-flooding surface on top of the transgressive
deposits with the most prominent plankton peak and the lowest
ratio in continental to marine particles. Alternatively, the inter-
val including sample 4 and 5 can be interpreted as maximum-
flooding zone since plankton percentages are the highest,
accompanied by the lowest ratio of continental to marine par-
ticles and the highest amount of equidimensional, opaque phy-
toclasts. The interval spanning samples 6 and 7 is interpreted
as early highstand deposits where the percentages of marine
plankton and equidimensional, opaque phytoclasts are still
high and foraminiferal test linings are present but the influx of
terrestrial particles is increasing. The change from an acri-
tarch-dominated to a prasinophyte-dominated plankton assem-
blage recorded in the uppermost part of the succession
(samples 8–10), as well as the switch to high terrestrial influx
with blade-shaped and mixed opaque and translucent phyto-
clasts is interpreted as indicative of late highstand deposits.
Prasinophytes are the only phytoplankton in sample 10, poin-
ting to a restricted shallow depositional environment, most pro-
bably lagoonal. However, from the palynofacies data it remains
an open question whether the dolomitic limestones captured by
sample 10 represent the latest highstand deposits or lowstand
deposits with the respective sequence boundary placed bet-
ween sample 9 and 10, and the transgressive surface recorded
by the lithoclasts at the base of the overlying grainstones.
The palynofacies analysis thus completes and refines the
sequence- and cyclostratigraphic interpretation based on litho-
facies and sedimentary structures.
Discussion
Biostratigraphy, chronostratigraphy, and large-scale corre-
lations
The new biostratigraphic data obtained enable the discrimi-
nation of the Anisian substages and placement of their boun-
daries in the studied sections. The Aegean/Bithynian boundary
is placed in the upper part of the Opletnya Member (lower
Mogila Formation), and the Bithynian/Pelsonian boundary in
the lower Zimevitsa Member (lower Babino Formation).
Ajdanlijsky et al. (2018) have already identified the base of
the Aegean substage (Olenekian/Anisian boundary) in the
upper most Petrohan Terrigenous Group (Fig. 3). Based on
these data, a first precise timing of the sedimentary cyclicity
within the lower Anisian succession in the area of the Iskar
gorge becomes possible.
Large-scale cyclicity can be detected by phytoplankton
abundances. A first marine pulse in the early Anisian
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(lowermost Opletnya Member, 2 m below the Tenuis Bed) is
followed by a prominent flooding event in the Bithynian
(upper part of the Opletnya Member) and a third major floo-
ding event in the Pelsonian (middle part of the Zimevitsa
Member), documented by peak abundances of marine
acritarchs. These three flooding phases were also detected in
the Muschelkalk deposits of southern Poland (Matysik 2016).
The most prominent transgressive signature in the Pelsonian is
recorded in carbonate ramp systems along the western Tethys
shelf (Michalík et al. 1992; Haas et al. 1995; Török 1998; Götz
et al. 2003; Budai & Vörös 2006; Götz & Török 2008; Stefani
et al. 2010; Chatalov 2013) and in characteristic transgressive
facies successions in the northern Peri-Tethys basin (Szulc
2000; Feist-Burkhardt et al. 2008). It might reflect a global
warming episode in the Pelsonian (Retallack 2013; Li et al.
2018).
Fig. 14. Palynofacies patterns of elementary sequence 6 (lower Opletnya Member), exposed in a road cut 450 m west of the Lakatnik section.
SB: sequence boundary; TS: transgressive surface; TSd: transgressive deposits; mfz: maximum-flooding zone; eHSd: early highstand deposits;
lHSd: late highstand deposits. CONT: continental components; MAR: marine components; OP: opaque; TR: translucent; ED: equidimensional;
BS: blade-shaped.
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Sedimentary cyclicity
Controversial interpretations of the prominent small-scale
cyclicity in the lower part of the Iskar Carbonate Group are
documented in publications of the last decades. Čatalov (1975)
assumed that the Svidol Formation was formed under epicon-
tinental tidal-flat conditions characterized by cyclic deposi-
tion. Later, Tronkov (1983, 1989) regarded the Opletnya
Member of the Mogila Formation as a typical rhythmic suc-
cession and described the main features of these rhythms
(hemicycles), subdividing them into three lithozones: (i) lower,
formed by oolitic-bioclastic calcarenites with intraclasts;
(ii) middle, characterized by marly limestones; and (iii) upper,
made up of dolomites. The rhythms are defined by transgres-
sive surfaces. According to the same author, the thickness
of the individual sedimentary cycles in the lower Opletnya
Member is in the range between 2 and 5 m, while upsection
they can reach and even exceed 20 m. The same author
assumed that these three lithozones represent (i) the distal off-
shore shelf bars, (ii) a calm back-bar carbonate sedimentation
with limited water circulation, and (iii) isolated lagoon envi-
ronments, respectively. The time duration and/or the rank of
the cycles were not defined. He proposed that the most com-
plete and detailed stratigraphic subdivision of the Opletnya
Member could be achieved considering its rhythmic character,
using each rhythm (hemicycle) as a distinct correlatable strati-
graphic unit.
Chatalov (1998, 2000, 2004) described peritidal cycles in
the lower Opletnya Member, discriminating a total of 17 small
(meter)-scale shallowing-upward asymmetric cycles. The upper
part of the member was not discussed. He assumed that each
shallowing-upward cycle (hemicycle) formed in a tidal-flat
environment due to sequential passage through its different
bathymetric zone. As a result, from base to top, the ideal indi-
vidual cycle is tripartite, starting with a subtidal basal lag,
followed by subtidal mudstones and bioclastic wackestones,
and ending with intertidal/supratidal dolomites. The thickness
of these hemicycles varies from 1.1 m to 12.4 m, with
an ave rage of 4.4 m. According to Chatalov (2016, 2018),
the influence of relative sea-level changes on the formation of
these cycles is debatable and he proposed an autogenic control
for the formation of these peritidal ramp cycles.
Ajdanlijsky et al. (2004) interpreted the entire succession of
the Opletnya Member as a result of hierarchical cyclic pro-
cesses. The smallest recognizable cyclic unit was defined as
elementary cycle, beginning with a transgressive surface,
often with an erosional base. The lower part of these cycles
was deposited in a high-energy shallow-marine setting, during
transgression over very shallow-marine (inter- or supratidal)
deposits forming the uppermost part of the previous cycle.
The top of the transgressive part of these cycles is marked by
the deepest lithofacies, indicating maximum flooding. The upper
part of the cycles demonstrates a shallowing-upwards trend.
The elementary cycles are grouped into submesocycles, and
these in turn into mesocycles with thicknesses of several tens
of meters. Because of the absence of reliable biostratigraphic
data, the time range of the elementary and submesocycles was
not defined, but it was assumed that the mesocycles corre-
spond to the third-order cycles of Vail et al. (1991).
Field data from both sections of the Opletnya Member
obtained during the present study allow refining the previous
interpretations by a precise definition and lateral correlation of
regional bounding surfaces and individual cycles, as well as
by an assessment of lateral lithofacies variations. The newly
obtained biostratigraphic data enable to establish a time frame-
work for the sequences of different hierarchical orders and to
reinterpret the stacking pattern.
The smallest recognizable cyclic units are here called ele-
mentary sequences (following the concepts of Strasser et al.
1999). They are symmetrical with a deepening-upward trend
in the lower and a shallowing-upward trend in the upper part,
separated by a maximum-flooding surface. Their boundaries
are represented by the shallowest lithofacies. In many cases,
sequence boundary and transgressive surface are amalga-
mated, which is explained by the low accommodation on
the shallow ramp. Lowstand deposits thus are only rarely
preserved. Combined into packages of five, these elementary
sequences form 14 larger cyclic units in the Opletnya Member,
here defined as small-scale sequences.
The number of the smallest cyclic units distinguished in
the underlying Svidol Formation, interpreted as parasequen-
ces, is 19 (Ajdanlijsky et al. 2018). Their thicknesses vary
from 0.7 m to 2.9 m (average 1.45 m), similar to those of
the elementary sequences in the Opletnya Member. These
parasequences commonly combine into packages of five, with
the maximum thickness recorded in the lower part of the trans-
gressive interval of these packages. As scale and stacking pat-
tern of the parasequences defined in the Svidol Formation and
of the elementary sequences in the Zimevitsa Member are
very similar to those of the elementary sequences in the
Opletnya Member, a similar formation is assumed. The sub-
sidence rate of the ramp must have been relatively constant
throughout this time interval and allowed for enough accom-
modation to accumulate the observed sedimentary record.
Although minor erosion and/or non-deposition certainly occur-
red at the boundaries of some elementary sequences, there is
no evidence that entire sequences are missing (Strasser 2016).
Comparing the total number of the Aegean elementary and
small-scale sequences with the updated Middle Triassic chart
(Haq 2018), it can be concluded that they are documenting
an allocyclic signal and formed in tune with the precession
(20-kyr) and short eccentricity (100-kyr) orbital cycles,
respectively. The 14 small-scale sequences identified in
the Opletnya Member thus indicate that this member was
deposited over a time period of 1.4 Myr. Furthermore, based
on the similarities in the composition and thickness, it can
be assumed that the elementary and small-scale sequences dis-
tinguished in the lowermost and uppermost Bithynian sub-
stage (i.e small-scale sequences 13 and 14 in the uppermost
Opletnya Member and those from the lowermost Zimevitsa
Member) also represent precession and short eccentricity
cycles (Figs. 7, 10).
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Concerning the medium-scale sequences, only the one
recognized in the Svidol Formation by Ajdanlijsky et al.
(2018) and the one at the base of the Opletnya Member (see
above) can be attributed to the 405-kyr long eccentricity cycle.
They are both composed of 4 small-scale sequences and
20 elementary sequences and thus reflect the hierarchical
stacking characteristic of a sedimentary system controlled by
orbital cycles (e.g., Strasser et al. 2006).
The highly variable lateral and vertical patterns of facies
and sedimentary structures (see Chapter Sedimentology)
clearly indicate that the shallow ramp hosted diverse sedimen-
tary environments: from shallow marine to supratidal, from
low to high energy, from normal marine to evaporative. These
environments were subjected not only to sea-level fluctuations
controlled by the orbital cycles but also to currents that shifted
sediment bodies and to minor tectonic movements that had
an additional control on accommodation. Consequently, the
observed sedimentary record is the result of a combination of
allocyclic as well as of autocyclic and random processes
(e.g., Pratt & James 1986; Strasser 2018). From the cyclo-
stratigraphic interpretation it appears that the amplitudes of
the sea-level changes induced by the precessional and short
eccentricity cycles were sufficient to create facies changes
that were recorded on the shallow ramp, but that the amplitude
related to the long eccentricity cycle left its traces only
in the Svidol Formation and at the base of the Opletnya
Member.
Major sequences
The interpretation of the small-scale sequences in the Oplet-
nya Member as reflecting the short (100-kyr) eccentricity
cycles allows the correlation with some of the major sequence
boundaries of the Tethyan realm. Ajdanlijsky et al. (2018) cor-
related the base of the Svidol Formation with sequence boun-
dary Ol4 in the upper Olenekian (Hardenbol et al. 1998; Ogg
2012). According to Li et al. (2018), the next major sequence
boundary An1 is located 4 long (405-kyr) eccentricity cycles
above the Ol4 boundary, which corresponds to 16 short
(100-kyr) eccentricity cycles (Fig. 15). In the study area,
the Svidol Formation contains four short eccentricity cycles
that can be correlated with the long eccentricity cycle E13 of
Li et al. (2018). Consequently, the position of sequence boun-
dary An1 has to be placed at the boundary between the 12
th
and
the 13
th
small-scale sequence (Fig. 7d), and this corresponds to
the top of cycle E16 of Li et al. (2018). In the Opletnya
Member, this boundary is marked by the relatively deepest
local erosion of over 70 cm. The surface is covered by abun-
dant lags of large intraclasts and marks the top of a 10 m thick
dolomite-dominated interval with tepees, desiccation cracks,
and abundant evaporites.
According to Haq (2018), sequence boundary Ol2 (equiva-
lent to Ol4 of Hardenbol et al. 1998) just below the boundary
between the Spathian and Aegean is dated at 246.9 Ma, and
sequence boundary An1 in the upper Aegean at 245.5 Ma. This
implies a duration of about 1.4 Myr for this major sequence.
However, according to Li et al. (2018) and our own study
(Fig. 15), the top of the Aegean coincides with sequence
boundary An1 and the 16 small-scale sequences identified
here between the two boundaries suggest a duration of
1.6 Myr (Fig. 15). This discrepancy calls for more research
in radiometric dating and in astrochronology. For example,
the date proposed for the Olenekian–Anisian (Spathian–
Aegean) boundary has shifted from 247.1 Ma (Ogg 2012) to
246.8 (Ogg et al. 2016), to 246.9 Ma (Haq 2018), and then to
247.2 Ma in the IUGS International Chronostratigraphic Chart
(2018, version 08).
The lithofacies data obtained in this study match well to
the general facies trends in the major sequence bounded by
Ol4 and An1. According to Li et al. (2018), its maximum-
flooding surface is in the middle part of cycle E14 (Fig. 15).
Based on the number of identified small-scale sequences
above sequence boundary Ol4, this surface has to be placed in
the maximum-flooding zone of the lowermost medium-scale
sequence within the Opletnya Member, marked by muddy
facies and a striking acritarch peak (Fig. 3). Upsection in the
Opletnya Member, facies indicate decreasing water depth and
the gradual establishment of peritidal environments, which led
to precipitation of evaporites and early diagenetic dolomiti-
zation in the small-scale sequences at the top of this major
sequence. The fact that the study of Li et al. (2018) is based on
a deep-water section in South China implies that the general
development of this sequence was controlled by over-regional
parameters.
The identification of the next major sequence boundary
(An2) is rather uncertain. On the one hand, the lithological and
biostratigraphical data suggest that it could be situated at the
top of the 5
th
elementary sequence of the Babino Formation
(Fig. 10). This boundary marks an interruption in sedimenta-
tion with signs of subaerial exposure and development of
a karstic surface that could have resulted from a prolonged
time gap. On the other hand, its confident placement requires
also reliable data for the cyclicity within the interval between
boundaries An1 and An2. Such information is available for
the uppermost Opletnya Member and lowermost Zimevitsa
Member, while data on the cyclicity within the Lakatnik
Member are not available yet. A peak abundance of marine
acritarchs occurs in the Zimevitsa Member (Fig. 3) and pro-
bably corresponds to the maximum flooding identified by Li
et al. (2018) below sequence boundary An2 (Fig. 15).
Soft-sediment deformation
Besides cyclicity, the sigmoidal structures resulting from
soft-sediment deformation that occur in the lower part of
the Opletnya Member can serve as a potential tool for event
stratigraphy. Michalík (1997) interpreted these deformation
structures as record of tsunamites and Chatalov (2001a, b,
2004) followed this interpretation of seismic activity during
the Anisian. Eleven seismite horizons within muddy lime-
stones were described from the Sfrazen and Lakatnik sections.
In southern, western, and northern directions the number of
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AJDANLIJSKY, STRASSER and GÖTZ
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these levels decreases, which might provide evidence of
an ancient earthquake epicenter in the area of these two sec-
tions. However, no data showing their orientation were pre-
sented. Thus, the localization of a possible seismic epicenter
remains unsettled.
In the studied sections, synsedimentary deformation is obser-
ved in mudstones, as well as in wacke- and wacke- to pack-
stones (Fig. 6). The stratigraphic position of these deformation
structures is specific: Ajdanlijsky et al. (2018) pointed out that
they occur predominantly within the highstand stage of an ele-
mentary sequence. The newly obtained data confirm this
observation and also shed new light on the facies context of
these structures. Their position in the upper part of the elemen-
tary sequences, restricted lateral distribution, concave-up mor-
phology on top of the individual beds, and their proximity and
temporal correlation with small-scale cut-and-fill structures
indicate that they most probably are connected with soft-sedi-
ment slumping activated by small-scale erosional events.
Sliding on the steep flank of a channel could produce similar
sedimentary structures. Furthermore, storm-induced loading
of non-lithified, cohesive sediment may lead to thixotropic
behavior (e.g., Chen & Lee 2013). Muddy sediment was more
abundant during a highstand phase than during transgression,
which might explain the preferential stratigraphic position of
these features of soft-sediment deformation.
It has to be mentioned that the lateral distribution and scale
of sigmoidal structures is much wider and larger than pre-
viously noted. For example, to the south of the study area,
west of Tserovo village (Fig. 2), a laterally traceable horizon
of such structures is almost half a meter thick and twice as
high above the base of the Opletnya Member than the thickest
level (40 cm) in the studied sections (Fig. 7). Again, this
horizon is developed in the upper (highstand) part of an ele-
mentary sequence.
In our opinion, the sigmoidal deformation structures in
the studied sections are paleoenvironmental indicators of
the initiation of the shallowing trend within the sequences
rather than seismites. However, a detailed lateral mapping of
these structures, including orientation measurements within
isochronous levels, is necessary to elucidate their origin.
Conclusions
The early Anisian (Aegean) ramp deposits of the Opletnya
Member in northwestern Bulgaria feature a prominent cyclical
pattern of the sedimentary record. In the two studied sections
of Lakatnik and Sfrazen, the facies are carbonate-dominated
but also include terrigenous siliciclastic material and evapo-
rites, and are interpreted as having been deposited in a variety
of environments ranging from peritidal to shallow marine.
Deepening-shallowing trends of facies evolution and promi-
nent surfaces allow identifying elementary, small-scale, and
medium-scale sequences. Palynofacies analysis complements
and confirms the lithofacies analysis within selected sequences.
The sequences are hierarchically stacked, with 5 elementary
sequences composing a small-scale one, and 2 or 4 small-scale
sequences composing a medium-scale one. Biostratigraphic
data (conodonts and palynomorphs) allow defining the Anisian
substage boundaries, and thus provide the basis for an estima-
tion of the durations of these sequences. Elementary and
small-scale sequences are interpreted to reflect the signatures
of the orbital precession and short eccentricity cycles with
periodicities of 20 and 100 kyr, respectively. Accordingly, it is
Fig. 15. Cyclostratigraphic chart of the Opletnya Member in the study area. See text for explanation.
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suggested that the Opletnya Member, which comprises 69 ele-
mentary and 14 small-scale sequences (Fig. 15), was depo-
sited within about 1.4 Myr. Medium-scale sequences that
correspond to the long eccentricity cycle of 405 kyr have been
identified only in the Svidol Formation and at the base of
the Opletnya Member. This suggests that the translation of
orbital cycles into sea-level changes that were then recorded
on the shallow ramp was not straightforward, and that other
processes inherent to the sedimentary system (such as lateral
migration of sediment bodies) and/or changes in subsidence
rate must have been at work as well.
Major sequence boundaries are identified at the base of
the Svidol Formation and within the uppermost Opletnya
Mem ber, corresponding to the sequence boundaries Ol4 and
An1 of the Tethyan realm. According to the cyclostratigraphic
interpretation presented here, there are 16 small-scale
sequences between these two sequence boundaries, implying
a duration of 1.6 Myr. Large-scale flooding events are recog-
nized by peak abundances of marine acritarchs, with the most
prominent event being identified in the Pelsonian Zimevitsa
Member. This Pelsonian maximum flooding is recorded in
carbonate ramp systems along the western Tethys shelf and
in the northern Peri-Tethys basin.
This study demonstrates that, based on detailed logging and
facies analysis, a cyclostratigraphic interpretation of shallow
ramp deposits is possible. Within a time framework based on
biostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy, the duration of indi-
vidual meter-scale depositional sequences can be estimated,
and a time resolution of 20 kyr can be achieved to better inter-
pret the evolution of the sedimentary environments.
Furthermore, astrochronologically dated correlation with
regional and over-regional events becomes possible and places
the studied Bulgarian sections in a global context.
Acknowledgements: This study is part of the Triassic Ocean
project TRIO lead by A.E. Götz. The thorough review of Janos
Haas (Budapest) and the comments of the handling editor
Jozef Michalík (Bratislava) are gratefully acknowledged.
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