GeolCarp_Vol69_No1_17

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, FEBRUARY 2018, 69, 1, 17–29

doi: 10.1515/geoca-2018-0002

www.geologicacarpathica.com

Provenance study of detrital garnets and rutiles

from basaltic pyroclastic rocks of Southern Slovakia

(Western Carpathians)

ONDREJ NEMEC and MONIKA HURAIOVÁ

Department of Mineralogy and Petrology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Ilkovičova 6, 842 15 Bratislava;

ondrej.nemec@uniba.sk, monika.huraiova@uniba.sk

(Manuscript received March 24, 2017; accepted in revised form December 12, 2017)

Abstract: Detrital garnets and rutiles have been recovered from basaltic pyroclastic rocks in the northern part of

the Pannonian Basin and characterized using electron probe microanalysis and imaging. All garnets are dominated by

the almandine component, except for one sample dominated by spessartine. A total of three garnet groups have been

distinguished according to the increased contents of grossular (Group I), pyrope (Group II) and spessartine components

(Group III). Compositions of the group I and II garnets with fluctuating Ca- and relatively low Mg contents are consistent

with low- to medium-grade metasediments and/or metabasites. Locally increased Mg contents could indicate higher P–T

metamorphic overprint. The dominantly metamorphic origin of the Group I and II garnets (composed of > 99 % of

samples) is also corroborated by chlorite, tourmaline, staurolite, ilmenite and andalusite inclusions. Spessartine-rich

garnets (Group III composed of < 1 % of samples) could be genetically linked with granitoids. Detrital rutiles invariably

plot within the field of metasediments metamorphosed under amphibolite-facies conditions. Possible proximal (subjacent

basement sampled by ascending lava) or distal sources (catchment sediments from uplifted Central Carpathian basement)

of heavy mineral assemblages are discussed.

Keywords: Western Carpathians, Slovakia, maar, diatreme, garnet, rutile, provenance study.

Introduction

A number of studies have been carried out to reveal the pro-

venance of heavy mineral detritus in sedimentary basins (e.g.,

Mange & Morton 2007). Geochemical characteristics of spe-

cific heavy minerals bear information about igneous and meta-

morphic basement rocks in their source regions and/or distant

contemporaneous volcanism. However, only a little attention

has been hitherto paid to heavy mineral assemblages from

pyroclastic rocks deposited from phreato-magmatic eruptions

in intra-plate tectonic settings. Although the vast majority of

heavy minerals in the volcanoclastic deposits are unequivo-

cally genetically related to parental magma (e.g., olivine,

pyro xene, amphibole, spinel), some minerals (e.g. tourmaline,

rutile, staurolite, andalusite) must have been obviously disrup-

ted from the subjacent basement or clastic sedimentary rocks

during explosive volcanism, thus possibly providing informa-

tion about the composition of the continental lithosphere.

Garnet is a key rock-forming mineral of magmatic and meta-

morphic rocks from various tectonic settings. Its chemical

composition is significantly dependent on that of parent rocks,

as well as on crystallization conditions. Together with the rela-

tive stability under weathering and metamorphic reworking

(e.g., Morton & Hallsworth 2007), these factors make garnet

the most widely used mineral for the discrimination of sedi-

ment provenance (Morton 1985; Méres 2008; Šarinová 2008;

Aubrecht et al. 2009; Suggate & Hall 2014).

In contrast to garnet, rutile has received only minor attention

as a provenance indicator (e.g., Götze 1996; Preston et al.

1998, 2002), although it is a common accessory mineral in

medium- to high-grade metamorphic rocks. In contrast, most

igneous and low-grade metamorphic rocks are practically

devoid of rutile (Force 1980, 1991) with some exceptions for

authigenic rutile and sagenitic rutile crystals (Mange & Maurer

1992) that are only rarely preserved in heavy mineral fraction

during the separation process.

Rutile’s structure allows for Al, V, Cr, Fe, Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf and

U to substitute for Ti (Graham & Morris 1973; Brenan et al.

1994; Hassan 1994; Murad et al. 1995; Smith & Perseil 1997;

Rice et al. 1998; Zack et al. 2002; Bromiley & Hilairet 2005;

Scott 2005; Carruzzo et al. 2006). Cr and Nb contents are par-

ticularly useful for the discrimination between metapelitic and

metamafic source lithologies (Zack et al. 2004a). In addition,

the incorporation of Zr into the rutile crystal lattice has a strong

temperature and pressure dependence, thus allowing for the

calculation of crystallization P–T conditions (Zack et al.

2004b; Watson et al. 2006; Tomkins et al. 2007). Given the

above reasons, variations in chemical compositions of rutile

combined with the Zr-in-rutile thermometry yield an impor-

tant tool for deciphering source rock lithology and/or meta-

morphic facies necessary for reliable provenance study.

This paper is focused on the garnet and rutile recovered

from pyroclastic infillings of maars and diatremes of the south

Slovakian Volcanic Field located in the northern part of the

NEMEC and HURAIOVÁ

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2018, 69, 1, 17–29

Pannonian Basin (Fig. 1). The study

area comprises two maars in Fiľakovo

town (Hradný vrch, 48°16’17” N,

19°49’33” E and Červený vrch,

48°16’43” N, 19°49’24” E), maars

near Hodejov (48°17’52” N, 19°59’3” E),

Hajnáčka (Kostná dolina, 48°12’35” N,

19°57’59” E) and Gemerské Dechtáre

(48°14’7” N, 20°1’35” E) villages,

as well as two diatremes within the

muni cipalities of Šurice (48°13’34” N,

19°54’47” E) and Tachty (48°9’22” N,

19°56’47” E) villages. The main

research objective was to elucidate

the source rocks and origin of detrital

garnets and rutiles from pyroclastic

deposits using geochemical charac-

teristics. The obtained data provide

information about the nature of

pre-Tertiary basement supplemental

to that obtained by the direct investi-

gation of xenoliths (e.g., Hovorka &

Lukáčik 1972; Elečko et al. 2008).

Geological setting

The South Slovakian Volcanic

Field (SSVF) covers an area of about

150 km

, which extends over the

Lučenská kotlina Depression and the

Cerová Vrchovina Upland continuing

into northern Hungary. Both regions

represent a part of the Juhoslovenská

kotlina Depression in the northern-

most promontory of the Pannonian

basin within the Carpathian arc

(Fig. 1a). The Panonnian basin is

a back-arc basin formed on thinned

crust during the extension established

after a Miocene subduction (Konečný

et al. 2002). Alkali basalt volcanism

in this area represents typical intra-

plate association developed as a res-

ponse to a decompression melting

associated with the back-arc exten-

sion coincidental with a diapiric

Fig. 1. a — Schematic map of the

Carpathian arc and the intra-Carpathian

back-arc (Pannonian) basin (modified

after Pécskay et al. 2006). Rectangle

marks the south-Slovakian Volcanic Field

(SSVF). b — Sketch map of SSVF with

marked volcanic phases (modified after

Vass et al. 2007).

DETRITAL GARNETS AND RUTILES FROM BASALTIC PYROCLASTIC ROCKS OF SOUTHERN SLOVAKIA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2018, 69, 1, 17–29

updoming of asthenospheric mantle (Dobosi et al. 1995;

Downes et al. 1995; Konečný et al. 1995).

Mafic alkali magma of the SSVF erupted within the time

interval from ~ 7 to 0.2 Ma (Vass et al. 2007) during a total of

six consecutive volcanic phases (Fig. 1b). The initial Late

Miocene phase (1

phase) in north-western part of the

Juhoslovenská kotlina Depression includes lava flows along

the western margin of the Lučenská kotlina Depression

(Podrečany and Mašková) and two maars near Jelšovec and

Pinciná villages. Whole-rock K–Ar radiometric ages

(6.44 ± 0.47 Ma and 6.6 ± 0.4 Ma) of the lava flow near

Podrečany (Balogh et al. 1981) corresponded to biostrati-

graphic data from the Poltár Formation (Planderová 1986)

deposited in fluvial/limnic environment contemporaneously

with the volcanic activity of this area (Vass et al. 2007).

Products of the Late Miocene volcanic activity are affiliated

with the Podrečany Basalt Formation (Balogh et al. 1981; Vass

& Kraus 1985). Recent U–Pb and U–Th(He) data on zircon

and apatite from Jelšovec and Pinciná maars, however, indi-

cate their Late Pliocene ages (Hurai et al. 2010, 2013).

The following volcanic activity (2

to 6

phase) taking

place in the terrestrial environment of the south-eastern part of

the SSVF during the Pliocene to Quaternary was triggered by

a local overheating caused by the updomed mantle plume

(Konečný et al. 1995). Alkali basalts of the Cerová Vrchovina

Upland are affiliated with the Cerová Basalt Formation (Vass

& Kraus 1985). Volcanism in this area gave rise to a number of

effusive forms, such as lava flows, necks and dykes, as well

as products of phreatic and phreato-magmatic eruptions

invol

ving maars, tuff rings, scoria- and spatter cones.

Diatremes representing feeder conduits of overlying maars

removed by erosion due to vertical movements along NW–SE

and NE–SW faults can also be discerned in this area (Konečný

et al. 1995).

Volcanic activity of 2

stage (5.5–3.7 Ma) occurred domi-

nantly inside and occasionally along margins of the updomed

area. It included several lava necks, cinder cones and lava

flows located in the southern part of the Cerová Vrchovina

Upland. Two diatremes near Tachty and Stará Bašta villages

were probably also created during this stage. The 3

stage took

place within the time interval from 2.9 to 2.6 Ma close to mar-

gins of the updomed area. The stage comprises the Šurice and

Hajnáčka diatremes that are subjects of this study. After

short-lasting break (about 0.3 Ma), volcanic activity expanded

over the margins of the updomed area during the 4

volcanic

stage (2.3–1.6 Ma), creating several lava flows and a complex

maar near Bulhary village. The 5

volcanic stage (1.6–1.1 Ma)

occurred dominantly in the Lučenská kotlina Depression

accompanied by sporadic activity within the updomed area.

Two maars near Fiľakovo (Hradný vrch and Červený vrch)

and Hodejov municipality were affiliated with the youngest

volcanic stage according to their relationship to river

terraces and their position on presumably Quaternary erosion

palaeosurfaces (Konečný et al. 2004; Vass et al. 2007).

However, combined U/Pb and (U-Th)/He zircon and apatite

geochronometry showed considerably older ages,

corresponding to 2.8 ± 0.2 Ma at Hodejov and 5.5 ± 0.6 Ma at

Fiľakovo - Hradný vrch (Hurai et al. 2013).

Volcanic products of the SSVF penetrate Upper Oligocene

to Lower Miocene sedimentary formations deposited onto

pre-Tertiary low-to-medium grade basement units. The pre-

Tertiary basement in the northern part of the Lučenská kotlina

Depression consists of early Variscan high-grade metamor-

phic and granitoid rocks of the Veporicum Unit covered by

Late Carboniferous (Revúca Group) and Late Triassic

(Foederata Group) sedimentary formations. The upper part of

the basement is represented by the Gemericum superunit

located to the south from the Lubeník-Margecany Line.

The Gemericum superunit consists of low grade metamorphic

rocks of the Early Palaeozoic Gelnica Group (porphyroids,

silicic metatuffs, metasandstones and phyllites) overlain by

remnants of the Carboniferous Ochtiná Formation of the

Dobšiná Group (sericite-chlorite and graphite-sericite phyl-

lites, metabasalts and carbonates with local occurrences of

serpentinites). The Mesozoic Meliata group composed mainly

of limestones, shales and volcanic rocks is exposed in the

southern part of the Gemericum Superunit (Vass & Elečko

1992).

All afore-mentioned tectonic units are demarcated by the

Tertiary, SW–NE-striking Rapovce – Plešivec transform fault.

Tectonic assignment of rock complexes occurring south from

this fault is ambiguous. Knowledge of the pre-Tertiary base-

ment in this area is only based on a single, relatively shallow

(~2 km) borehole near Blhovce (FV-1) and rare xenoliths

found in maars, diatremes and basalt lava flows. Low-grade

metamorphic rocks (green-schist, phyllite) intercepted by

the FV-1 borehole are alternatively correlated either with

Palaeozoic rocks of the Gemericum superunit (Snopková &

Bajaník 1979; Vass et al. 2007) or those of the Agtelek-

Rudabánya unit (Dank & Fülop 1990). High-grade metamor-

phic rocks (gneiss, amphibolite) described as xenoliths in

andesite laccoliths near Šiatorská Bukovinka are tentatively

correlated either with the Variscan basement of the Veporicum

superunit (Hovorka & Lukáčik 1972) or with the Meliata unit

(Plašienka et al. 1997). The Late Oligocene (Kiscellian) Číž

Formation and the Eggerian Lučenec Formation subjacent to

Early Eggenburgian coastal sediments of the Fiľakovo

Formation (Vass & Elečko 1992) cover older unknown tec-

tonic units beneath the Lučenská kotlina Depression and

Cerová Vrchovina Upland.

Methods

Samples of volcanoclastic material, 10 –15 kg in weight

were taken from non-coherent tuff and lapilli tuff horizons of

maar structures and diatremes. The heavy mineral fraction was

obtained by panning of the clastic material < 2 mm in diameter.

The follow-up separation process included sieving to the

0.5– 0.63 mm fraction, gravitational separation in heavy liquid

(bromoform with D = 2.8 g/cm

or sodium polytungstate with

D = 2.9 g/cm

) and electromagnetic separation. Garnet and

NEMEC and HURAIOVÁ

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2018, 69, 1, 17–29

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

Raman shift (cm )

-1

Intensity

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

Raman shift (cm )

-1

Intensity

910

293

Andalusite

Staurolite

230

442

787

934

899

rutile grains were handpicked from the paramagnetic fraction

under the binocular microscope, then mounted in epoxy resin,

sectioned and polished.

Mineral identification was carried out using a HORIBA

Jobin–Yvon Xplora Raman spectrometer at the Geological

division of the Earth Science Institute of the Slovak Academy

of Sciences (Banská Bystrica). Spectra were recorded using

532 or 638 nm excitations of a 25 mW Nd-YAG laser.

A long-working-distance LMPLanFI 100×0.8 objective lens

of an Olympus BX-51 optical microscope focused the laser

beam and collected the scattered light with a Peltier-cooled

(−70 °C), multi-channel CCD detector (1024×256 pixels) with

spectral resolutions of 1.8 and 1.0 cm

-1

, respectively, for the

two mentioned excitations and the holographic grating with

1800 grooves/mm.

Chemical compositions of separated mineral grains were

determined using a CAMECA SX-100 electron microprobe at

the Department of Electron Microanalysis of the State

Geological Institute of Dionýz Štúr in Bratislava. Accelerating

voltage of 15 kV, beam current of 20 nA and beam focused to

5 µm were applied during measurements of garnet grains.

The following standards and measured lines were used:

Si (TAP, Kα, wollastonite), F (LPCO, Kα, LiF), Cl (LPET, Kα,

NaCl), Al (TAP, Kα, Al

), Ca (LPET, Kα, apatite), Fe (LLIF,

Kα, fayalite), Ti (LLIF, Kα, TiO2), K (LPET, Kα, orthoclase),

Na (TAP, Kα, albite), Mg (TAP, Kα, forsterite), Mn (LLIF, Kα,

rhodonite), Cr (LLIF, Kα, Cr). Detection limits were within

0.01– 0.05 wt. % of oxide.

Analytical conditions for rutile followed those proposed by

Zack et al. (2004a) specially tailored for the Zr-in-rutile ther-

mometry. Each grain was analysed for Ti, Cr, Al, Fe, Nb, Zr,

Si, Ta and Mg. The following standards and excitation lines

were used: Si (TAP, Kα, ZrSiO

), Al (TAP, Kα, Al

Ti (LLIF, Kα, TiO

), Mg (TAP, Kα, forsterite), Cr (LLIF, Kα,

Cr), Fe (LLIF, Kα, fayalite), Zr (LPET, Lα, ZrO

), Nb (TAP,

Lα, LiNbO

) and Ta (LLIF, Lα, LiTaO

). Chemical homo-

geneity was checked in back-scattered electron images and by

multiple analyses of single grains.

Garnet and rutile crystallochemical formulae were calcu-

lated on the basis of 8 and 1 cations, respectively. Formation

temperatures of rutiles were calculated using an empirical

Zr-in-rutile thermometer proposed by Zack et al. (2004b) and

Watson et al. (2006).

Results

Heavy mineral assemblages and their abundances

The following minerals have been recovered from the

samples studied: pyroxene, amphibole, garnet, tourmaline,

epidote, titanite, olivine, apatite, zircon, rutile, spinel, ilme-

nite, corundum, staurolite and andalusite (Fig. 2). Abundances

of individual minerals are rather different in the localities

studied (Table 1). Garnet, amphibole and pyroxenes are domi-

nant in Hodejov, Hajnáčka and both maars in Fiľakovo.

Samples from maar localities as well as diatremes are also

similar in terms of the volume fraction of heavy minerals

separated from sediments. Abundance of individual minerals

in the Hajnáčka - Kostná dolina maar was probably influenced

by the redeposition of maar lake sediments (Sabol et al. 2004;

Hurai et al. 2012). The Tachty and Šurice diatremes are sub-

stantially enriched by a heavy mineral fraction composed

mainly of pyroxene and olivine. In contrast to other localities,

spinel and andalusite are missing in the heavy mineral assem-

blages from these diatremes.

Chemical composition of garnets

Garnet forms pink-to-orange, subhedral to anhedral grains

with rounded edges, up to 900 µm in size. BSE images do not

show any inherited cores or overgrowth marginal zones

(Fig. 3a–d). Numerous mineral inclusions have been identified

Fig. 2. a — Representative Raman spectrum of andalusite from

Hodejov, with distinctive bands at 293 and 910 cm

-1

. b — Repre-

sentative Raman spectrum of staurolite from Fiľakovo

Červený vrch,

with distinctive bands at 230, 442, 787, 899, 934 cm

-1

Locality

F-CV

F-C

H-KD

HM (vol. %)

0.8

1.5

2.3

18.3

15.7

3.2

amphibole

garnet

epidote

titanite

ilmenite

olivine

zircon

pyroxene

tourmaline

apatite

rutile

spinel

staurolite

andalusite

corundum

+ indicates less than 1 % of mineral content
Abbrevation of localities: HO: Hodejov, F-CV: Fiľakovo - Červený vrch,

F-C: Fiľakovo - Hradný vrch, TA: Tachty, SE: Šurice, H-KD: Hajnáčka - Kostná

dolina

Table 1: Modal composition (vol. %) of heavy mineral assemblages

in volcanoclastic deposits.

DETRITAL GARNETS AND RUTILES FROM BASALTIC PYROCLASTIC ROCKS OF SOUTHERN SLOVAKIA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2018, 69, 1, 17–29

in the investigated garnet grains: quartz, epidote, zircon,

apatite, xenotime, chlorite, muscovite, biotite, tourmaline,

staurolite, Al

SiO

polymorphs and Fe-Ti oxides, such

as rutile, ilmenite and spinel. Garnets from Fiľakovo -

Červený vrch and Hodejov also contained silicate melt

inclusions.

The compositional variability of the investigated garnets is

surprisingly wide, although the majority of garnets are domi-

nated by almandine with variable contents of grossular, pyrope

and spessartine. Spessartine-dominated garnet was found in

the Hodejov maar (Table 2).

A total of two major and one minor compositional group can

be recognized in all investigated localities (Fig. 4). The major

group I consists of almandines with a lower pyrope content

(up to 14 mol. % prp) whereas group II comprises almandine

garnets with increased content of the pyrope component

(15 –30 mol. % prp). The third minor group corresponds to

spessartine-rich almandine or spessartine. Both major groups

can be further subdivided into two subgroups based on the

contrasting grossular content.

The largest group (Ia) comprises almandine garnets

(56 –78 mol. % alm) with an increased grossular component

(10 –30 mol. % grs). Pyrope and spessartine end-member con-

tents reach up to 13 mol. % within this subgroup. Inclusions of

staurolite, chlorite, tourmaline and Al

SiO

polymorphs are

basically similar to those found in the group II garnets. Some

garnets from this group also exhibit higher spessartine content

(up to 32 mol. %) in the core with decreasing of Mn towards

the rim of the garnet (Table 2). The grs-rich almandine occurs

in all localities studied.

The almandine-rich group Ib garnets contain 71–86 mol. %

of almandine component accompanied by 4–14 mol. % prp,

up to 10 mol. % sps, and up to 10 mol. % grs. The group Ib

garnets occur mainly in the Tachty diatreme, and in small

amounts also in all other localities, except for the Hodejov

maar and Šurice diatreme. The group Ib garnets usually

Fig. 3. Back-scattered electron (BSE) images of garnets (grt) from pyroclastic tuffs. a — Garnet with inclusions of zircon (zrn) and Al

SiO

minerals from Hodejov maar (sample HO-2G, an3 — group IIb). b — Garnet with inclusions of chlorite (chl) from Gemerské Dechtáre maar

(sample GD-1G, an5 — group Ia). c — Garnet with inclusions of staurolite, kyanite, ilmenite and zircon from Hodejov maar (sample HO-5-3,
an03 — group IIb). d — Garnet with mineral inclusions of chlorite (chl), ilmenite (ilm) and epidote (ep) from Fiľakovo

Červený vrch maar

(sample CV-1, an5 — group Ia).

NEMEC and HURAIOVÁ

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2018, 69, 1, 17–29

Grs

Alm

Prp

Sps

Alm

Prp

Group Ib. - almandines

Fiľakovo - Hradný vrch

Hodejov

Group Ia. - grs-rich almandines

Group IIb. - prp-rich almandines

Group IIa. - prp-grs-rich almandines

Šurice

Hajnáčka - Kostná dolina

Fiľakovo - Červený vrch

Gemerské Dechtáre

Group Ib.

Group IIb.

Group IIa.

Group Ia.

Group III. - sps-rich almandines

Group III.

Group IIb.

Group Ib.

Group III.

Group Ia.

enclose quartz, ilmenite and zircon, but some of them also

contained chlorite and tourmaline inclusions (e.g.,

Fiľakovo - Hradný vrch, Gemerské Dechtáre).

Group IIa garnets are almandine garnets proportionally

enriched with pyrope (14–24 mol. %) and grossular (11–30

mol. %) end-members. The spessartine component is also

rela tively abundant, reaching up to 10 mol. %. Quartz and

Fe–Ti oxides are typical inclusions. Some garnets of this

group contain silicate melt inclusions (Fiľakovo - Červený

vrch). Group IIa garnets are typical for the Fiľakovo maars,

but they also occur in other localities studied.

Group IIb garnets are almandine garnets (65–75 mol. %)

with an increased pyrope content ranging from 17 to 29

mol. %. Grossular (up to 10 mol. %) and spessartine (up to

Table 2: Representative electron probe microanalyses, crystallochemical formulae and endmember contents of detrital garnets from pyroclastic

sediments of the SSVF.

Sample:

HO-5-3

HO-2G HA-KD-7

CVV-3-1

HV-1G

HV-1-G

SE-2-3

TA-IH-1

TA-2-8 HA-KD-7 HA-KD-7

HO-2G

Anal.No

11-c

12-r

Locality

H-KD

F-CV

F-C

H-KD

Group

IIb.

IIa.

Ia.

IIa.

Ib.

Ia.

III.

SiO

38.35

38.52

38.32

38.33

37.66

37.44

38.01

37.19

37.22

37.62

37.21

36.76

TiO

0.00

0.04

0.01

0.04

0.08

0.16

0.02

0.07

0.03

0.12

0.17

0.27

21.57

22.08

21.35

21.16

21.34

20.85

21.53

20.87

21.23

20.96

20.82

20.68

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.01

0.00

0.04

0.00

0.03

0.00

0.05

FeO

30.59

30.76

33.27

28.89

25.96

30.05

30.48

38.50

38.17

29.90

16.75

6.97

MnO

0.65

0.85

1.19

0.62

9.36

3.00

0.62

0.18

0.65

2.61

19.20

31.75

MgO

6.94

6.72

5.59

5.78

0.79

1.00

5.07

1.81

3.00

1.51

0.40

CaO

1.59

1.67

1.38

5.40

6.27

8.26

5.47

2.04

0.61

8.20

7.15

4.22

Total

99.71

100.67

101.12

100.23

101.50

100.77

101.25

100.68

101.01

100.92

101.70

101.10

3.009

2.996

3.002

2.995

2.999

2.991

2.956

3.003

2.978

2.990

2.965

2.964

0.000

0.002

0.000

0.002

0.005

0.010

0.001

0.004

0.002

0.007

0.010

0.016

1.995

2.024

1.971

1.949

2.003

1.963

1.974

1.987

2.001

1.963

1.956

1.966

0.000

0.001

0.000

0.002

0.000

0.002

0.000

0.003

2.006

1.999

2.178

1.887

1.728

2.007

1.915

2.598

2.552

1.986

1.115

0.470

0.812

0.779

0.653

0.673

0.094

0.119

0.588

0.218

0.358

0.179

0.047

0.048

0.043

0.056

0.079

0.041

0.631

0.203

0.041

0.012

0.044

0.175

1.296

2.169

0.134

0.139

0.115

0.452

0.535

0.382

0.456

0.176

0.053

0.699

0.611

0.364

Total

8.000

Prp

27.10

26.21

21.58

22.05

3.14

3.92

19.18

7.26

11.90

5.88

1.53

1.59

Alm

66.98

67.22

72.00

61.80

57.82

66.10

64.61

86.47

84.89

65.36

36.34

15.40

Grs

4.47

4.68

3.81

14.81

17.91

23.28

14.87

5.86

1.75

22.99

19.90

11.94

Sps

1.45

1.89

2.61

1.34

21.13

6.69

1.34

0.41

1.46

5.77

42.23

71.07

-c: core analyses, -r: rim analyses
Abbreviations of localities: HO: Hodejov, F-CV: Fiľakovo - Červený vrch, F-C: Fiľakovo - Hradný vrch, TA: Tachty, SE: Šurice, H-KD: Hajnáčka - Kostná Dolina,

GD: Gemerské Dechtáre

Fig. 4. Chemical compositions of SSVF garnets (n = 140) projected onto the classification diagram based on endmember abundance (mol. %).

Abbreviations: Alm — almandine, Prp — pyrope, Grs — grossular, Sps — spessartine.

DETRITAL GARNETS AND RUTILES FROM BASALTIC PYROCLASTIC ROCKS OF SOUTHERN SLOVAKIA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2018, 69, 1, 17–29

7 mol. %) contents are relatively low. Mineral inclusions cor-

respond to staurolite, chlorite and Al

SiO

polymorphs.

A majority of the pyrope-rich group IIb garnets occur in

Hodejov maar. However, they have been encountered in all

localities studied, except for the Fiľakovo - Hradný vrch maar.

The minor group III comprises one spessartine-rich alman-

dine garnet (42 mol. % sps) from Hajnáčka - Kostná dolina

maar and one spessartine grain from the Hodejov maar with as

much as 71 mol. % sps. Other components are generally low:

up to 20 mol. % grs and up to 2 mol. % prp.

Chemical composition and crystallization temperatures of

rutiles

Rutile grains separated from pyroclastic sediments are

reddish-brown in colour and they form anhedral to subhedral

prismatic crystals up to 400 µm in size. Rutiles are chemically

homogenous, usually without mineral inclusions, except for

one rutile from the Hodejov maar, which contained numerous

minute zircon inclusions. Rutile grains are also very frequently

intergrown with quartz. Rare quartz rods (Fig. 5) indicate

an over-saturation with silica which is an essential prerequisite

for the application of the Zr-in-rutile thermometer (Ferry &

Watson 2007).

Raman spectra of rutile (Fig. 6) showed distinctive bands at

143, 247, 447, 612 cm

-1

distinguishing the tetragonal rutile

from other major structural TiO

polymorphs, such as anatas

(144, 197, 400, 516 and 640 cm

-1

) and brookite (153, 247, 322

and 633 cm

-1

) (Porto et al. 1967; Ohsaka et al. 1978; Tompsett

et al. 1995).

All the investigated rutiles are essentially pure compounds

with ~ 99 wt. % averaged normalized content of TiO

The remaining 1 wt. % was distributed among Cr

, FeO,

ZrO

, Nb

and Ta

. Concentrations of the substituent ele-

ments displayed large variations. Iron content varied between

1038 and 4397 ppm. Nb contents attained 3968 ppm, with the

majority of values ranging between 2500 and 3500 ppm.

Chromium contents were most variable, ranging from 44 to

1820 ppm.

Crystallization temperatures calculated after the empirical

calibration of Zack et al. (2004b) fluctuated between 592 and

782 °C in Hodejov, from 548 to 753 °C in Fiľakovo - Červený

vrch, from 570 to 766 °C in Šurice and from 662 to 710 °C in

Tachty. The same thermometer calibrated by Watson et al.

(2006) yielded slightly lower temperatures clustered in nar-

rower intervals: 568–685 °C in Hodejov, 545–665 °C in

Fiľakovo - Červený vrch, 556 to 673 °C in Šurice, and 607 to

637 °C in Tachty. Electron probe microanalyses of rutile and

calculated temperatures are summarized in Table 3. The dis-

crepancy between the two selected thermometer calibrations

was discussed by several authors (Watson et al. 2006; Chen &

Li 2008, Meinhold et al. 2008, Meinhold 2010). The two ther-

mometers intersect at a temperature of about 540 °C but

diverge significantly both at lower and higher temperatures,

implying possible pressure-driven Zr incorporation into the

rutile crystal lattice (Watson et al. 2006).

Discussion

Provenance of garnets

Deciphering the provenance of almandine garnets may be

ambiguous, because they can crystallize under different condi-

tions in various rock types, comprising plutonic and volcanic

rocks (e.g., granite, andesite), and metamorphic rocks of

amphibolite to granulite facies (Deer et al. 1997). Indeed,

detrital garnets from pyroclastic rocks of the SSVF fall into at

least three different fields in the discrimination diagram pro-

posed by Morton et al. (2004), thus overlapping possible met-

amorphic and magmatic origins (Fig. 7).

Increased pyrope content is diagnostic of garnets formed

under high-pressure to ultra-high-pressure metamorphic con-

ditions (e.g., Nandi 1967; Miyashiro & Shido 1973; Oszczypko

& Salata 2005), whereas Mg-rich, Ca-depleted garnets are

generally affiliated with granulites or charnockites (Sabeen et

al. 2002; Morton et al. 2004; Mange & Morton 2007). In con-

trast, sediments metamorphosed in amphibolite facies condi-

tions usually contain Mg-depleted garnets with variable Ca

contents (Morton et al. 2004; Mange & Morton 2007).

Therefore, we attribute the group I of Mg-depleted garnets

with variable Ca contents from the SSVF to amphibolite-fa-

cies metasediments despite the fact that they also overlap the

field of acid to intermediate magmatic rocks. According to

Mange & Morton (2007), this field was mainly defined to

better distinguish garnets with an increased spessartine con-

tent genetically related to granites and/or pegmatites. The sub-

group Ia of grs-rich almandine also correlates with garnets

from phyllites and garnet mica-schists of the Gemericum and

Fig. 5. Back-scattered electron (BSE) image of rutile (sample HO-3R,

Hodejov). Small grey needles represent quartz inclusions. Circles

mark spots analysed by electron probe. Numbers refer to Zr concen-

trations (in ppm), T

and T

values correspond to temperatures (°C)

calculated after Zack et al. (2004b) and Watson et al. (2006). The

inferred temperatures indicate a homogenous distribution of Zr in the

investigated rutile grain.

NEMEC and HURAIOVÁ

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2018, 69, 1, 17–29

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

Intensity

143

612

447

247

Rutile

Raman shift (cm )

-1

Veporicum Superunits (Méres & Hovorka 1989; Hovorka &

Méres 1990; Janák et al. 2001; Vozárová in Šarinová 2008).

Part of group Ia garnets also exhibit sps and grs contents

decreasing towards the rim, thus resembling the similar trend

observed in garnet mica-schists by Hovorka et al. (1987),

Méres & Hovorka (1991) and Korikovsky et al. (1990).

The subgroup Ib of alm-rich garnets is similar to those found

in amphibolite facies metasediments (paragneisses) of the

pre-Alpine basement rocks of the Western Carpathians

(Hovorka et al. 1987; Méres & Hovorka 1989; Faryad 1990,

1995, 1996; Vozárová 1993; Vozárová & Faryad 1997;

Plašienka et al. 1999).

The increased prp content observed in the group II garnets,

particularly in the subgroup Ib, would indicate higher grade

metamorphic P-T conditions. The medium- to high-grade

metamorphic conditions are also indicated in both the sub-

group Ia and IIb garnets by staurolite and Al

SiO

inclusions,

as well as by the ubiquitous presence of these minerals in the

associated heavy mineral assemblage. The subgroup IIa gar-

nets with increased pyrope and grossular components are

similar to those described from high-grade metabasites and

metasediments (Méres 2008; Aubrecht et al. 2009; Šarinová

2008; Morton et al. 2004; Mange & Morton 2007). However,

similar garnets may also occur in garnet mica-schists, amphi-

bolites or granulites. On the other hand, peridotite or eclogite

can be excluded as possible source rocks of the investigated

garnets because of their low pyrope (<50 mol. %) content

(Coleman et al. 1965; Deer et al. 1992; von Eynatten & Gaupp

1999). Based on different grs content, we infer that the group

IIa garnets with proportional abundance of grs and prp compo-

nents could be genetically related to amphibolite-to-granulite

facies metabasites. The composition of this garnet group is

also similar to that of garnets described from amphibolites of

the pre-Alpine basement of Western Carpathians (Spišiak &

Hovorka 1985; Faryad 1996; Hovorka et al. 1992; Hovorka &

Méres 1990; Janák et al. 1996; Janák & Lupták 1997; Vozárová

& Faryad 1997; Méres et al. 2000; Faryad et al. 2005). Garnets

with increased pyrope content have also been rarely found in

basalts as xenocrysts or products of secondary metasomatic

processes (e.g. Skewes & Stern 1979; Rollinson 1999; Aydar

& Gourgaud 2002; Rankenburg et al. 2004); but there is no

evidence of garnet-bearing basalts in the SSVF area (e.g.,

Miháliková & Šímová 1989). However, part of the group IIa

almandines overlaps the field of magmatic garnets genetically

related to andesites (Bouloton & Paquette 2014; Harangi et al.

2001; Bónová 2005). Hence, the existence of magmatic gar-

nets in pyroclastic sediments of the SSVF cannot be entirely

ruled out.

Spessartine-rich garnets in pyroclastic sediments of the

Hajnáčka - Kostná dolina and Hodejov maars deserve special

attention. Significant sps content may occur in almandine gar-

nets derived from felsic igneous rocks or low-grade metasedi-

ments (Deer et al. 1997). Sps-rich garnets commonly occur in

granites, granitic pegmatites and skarn deposits (e.g. Suggate

& Hall 2014). We assume that the small group III of sps-rich

almandine and spessartine from Hajnáčka - Kostná dolina and

Hodejov may have been derived either from underlying base-

ment granitoids envisaged in this area by Kantor (1960) and

Vozárová & Vozár (1988), or from granitoid pebbles found in

sediments of the Bukovinka Formation (Vass et al. 1981)

pene trated by the EHJ-1 borehole drilled west of Čamovce

and Nová Bašta (Vass et al. 2007) in the proximity of the

Hajnáčka and Hodejov maars. Faryad & Dianiška (1989) also

described high-spessartine garnets (up to 58 %) in granitoid

rocks from the Gemericum Superunit.

Provenance of rutiles

Rutile is a common mineral phase in a wide range of litho-

logies, including high-grade metamorphic rocks, magmatic

rocks, sediments or hydrothermal ore deposits (Force 1980;

Deer et al. 1992). However, rutile mainly crystallizes in

Sample

HO-10

HO-3R

CVV-3-1

F-CV-R3

F-CVR2

SE-SP-R1

SE-V-R3

TA-R1

Anal. No

Locality

F-CV

2976

1538

1970

2141

2164

2075

2707

2669

2540

2428

1649

210

585

1396

293

826

753

917

1479

1093

444

337

3015

1426

2292

1014

3159

2418

942

1958

3593

2063

2883

212

139

492

159

276

304

432

227

172

192

218

347

143

191

376

108

249

127

107

137

230

139

185

205

b.d.

122

b.d.

log(Cr/

Nb)

− 1.16

− 0.39

− 0.22

− 0.54

− 0.58

− 0.51

− 0.01

− 0.12

− 0.42

− 0.67

− 0.93

(°C)

675

621

782

638

708

720

766

683

648

662

678

(°C)

615

584

685

594

636

643

673

620

599

607

617

Concentrations are given as parts per million (ppm), bdl = below detection limit
Abbreviations of localities: HO: Hodejov, F-CV: Fiľakovo - Červený vrch, TA: Tachty, SE: Šurice

Table 3: Representative electron probe microanalyses of detrital rutiles from pyroclastic sediments of the SSVF.

Fig. 6. Representative Raman spectrum of rutile from Fiľakovo

Červený

vrch with distinctive bands at 143, 247, 447, 612 cm

-1

DETRITAL GARNETS AND RUTILES FROM BASALTIC PYROCLASTIC ROCKS OF SOUTHERN SLOVAKIA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2018, 69, 1, 17–29

medium- to high-grade metamorphic conditions (e.g.,

Goldsmith & Force 1978; Force 1980). Zack et al. (2002,

2004a) proposed that Cr and Nb abundances in rutile can be

employed to distinguish between metamafic and metapelitic

source lithologies. These authors inferred that metapelite

rutiles contain 900 –2700 ppm Nb that predominates over Cr.

Meinhold et al. (2008) proposed that the lowermost limit

should be equal to 800 ppm Nb in rutile from metapelitic litho-

logies. Rutiles with Cr > Nb or those with Cr < Nb and Nb < 800

ppm should be derived from metamafic rocks. To simplify this

concept, Triebold et al. (2007) introduced the log(Cr / Nb)

value to discriminate between metamafic and metapelitic

source lithologies (Fig. 8). Similar to the Cr/Nb ratio, Zack et

al. (2004b) suggested the iron content is an additional indica-

tor of metamorphic origin, since metamorphic rutiles mostly

contain >1000 ppm Fe.

Using the approach of Zack et al. (2002) combined with

temperatures calculated after Watson et al. (2006) we infer that

rutiles from the Hodejov and Fiľakovo - Červený Vrch maars

and those from Tachty and Šurice diatremes may have been

derived from amphibolite-facies metasedimentary rocks

(mica-schist or paragneiss), as is documented in Fig. 8. Hence,

the provenance of rutiles is basically the same as that of the

associated metamorphic garnet from amphibolite facies

metasediments.

Proximal versus distal origin of heavy minerals?

In summary, the group I and group II garnets of the SSVF

are be most likely to be affiliated to metamorphic source rocks,

whereas group III is likely magmatic in origin, being geneti-

cally associated with granitic rocks. Possible source areas of

these rock types include subjacent deep-seated crystalline

basement units or shallow basin catchment sediments trans-

ported from the Central Carpathians. The first possibility is

indicated by the borehole FV-1 near Blhovce that penetrated

Fig. 7. Detritic garnets from volcanoclastic deposits of the SSVF plotted on the ternary diagram with almandine+spessartine (X

Fe+Mn

), grossular

) and pyrope (X

) endmembers and subdivision lines dividing garnets from different source rocks (modified after Mange & Morton 2007).

The type-A field denotes garnets from high-grade granulites or charnokites and intermediate-to-acidic rocks sourced from deep crust, the

type-Bi field corresponds to intermediate-acidic igneous rocks, the type-Bii field denotes amphibolite-facies metasediments, the type-Ci field

is affiliated with high-grade metabasic rocks. Other garnet types include ultramafic source rocks, such as pyroxenite and peridotite (type-Cii),

metasomatic rocks (skarns), low-grade metabasic rocks, and ultra-high temperature calc-silicate granulites (type-D). Fields for garnets from

phyllites, mica-schists, gneisses, amphibolites and amphibolized eclogites from pre-Alpine basement rocks of the Western Carpathians were

compiled from Hovorka et al. (1987, 1992), Hovorka & Méres (1990), Korikovsky et al. (1990), Spišiak & Hovorka (1985), Méres & Hovorka

(1989), Vozárová (1993), Faryad (1990, 1995, 1996), Faryad et al. (2005), Janák et al. (1996, 2001), Janák & Lupták (1997), Vozárová &

Faryad (1997), Plašienka et al. (1999), Méres et al. (2000) and Šarinová (2008). The field for magmatic garnets (andesites dacites & tuffs) was

compiled from data in Bouloton & Paquette (2014), Harangi et al. (2001), Bónová (2005) and Vozárová in Šarinová (2008).

NEMEC and HURAIOVÁ

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2018, 69, 1, 17–29

-3

-2

-1

500

550

600

650

700

log (Cr/Nb)

calc. T °C)

(

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

1000

2000

3000

4000

Cr (ppm)

Nb (ppm)

metapelitic

rutile from

metapelitic rocks

Hodejov

Fiľakovo - Červený vrch

Šurice
Tachty

mid- to upper Devonian green-schists and phyllites (Vass &

Bajaník 1988). These metasedimentary sequences, however,

did not contain any garnet. Mica schist and amphibolite known

as xenoliths in Miocene andesite intrusions near Šiator and

Karanč (Hovorka & Lukáčik 1972; Elečko et al. 2008) may be

an alternative proximal garnet source derived from underlying

basement rocks.

Pebbles and heavy minerals in Tertiary sediments redepo-

sited from distal sources may also have contributed to the

heavy mineral assemblage of pyroclastic deposits in the SSVF.

A certain amount of garnets accompanied by staurolite and

kyanite was mentioned in the heavy mineral fraction of clastic

sediments of the Juhoslovenská kotlina Basin (Marková et al.

1980, 1982); however, garnet composition has not been stu-

died. These minerals diagnostic of high-grade metamorphic

rocks may have been transported by rivers from the uplifted

Central Carpathian basement involving the Gemeric (Gelnica

Group) and/or the Veporic Superunits (Vass & Elečko 1992;

Vass et al. 2007), deposited in catchment sediments of the

Juhoslovenská kotlina Basin, and finally redistributed in the

volcanoclastic deposits by phreato-magmatic eruptions.

Obviously, we are unable to discriminate with our present

state of knowledge between the various proximal and distal

sources of heavy minerals in the pyroclastic deposits of the

SSVF, mainly due to missing compositional data on heavy

minerals from Tertiary clastic sediments.

Interestingly, systematic study of zircons in primary pyro-

clastic deposits of the Pinciná, Fiľakovo - Hradný vrch,

Hodejov, and Gemerské Dechtáre maars (Hurai et al. 2010,

2013) and in redeposited sediments of the Hajnáčka - Kostná

dolina maar (Hurai et al. 2012) did not provide any evidence

for zircons inherited from proximal or distal pre-Tertiary

sources. In turn, all investigated volcanic structures only con-

tained populations of very young (2–5 Ma) magmatic zircons

derived from A-type granite/syenite melts produced by

advanced fractional crystallization of underplated alkali basalt

(e.g., Huraiová et al. 1996, 2017) and entrained in younger

basalt portions as zircon-bearing xenoliths or isolated zircon

xenocrysts. Fragmentation coincidental with shallow phreato-

magmatic explosions triggered by the contact of the ascending

basaltic magma with aquifers is indicated by morphological

features of the investigated zircons: fragments of larger

rounded zircons reflect non-equilibrium melting and transport

of xenocrysts in contact with basaltic magma prior to the final

eruption, whereas small euhedral zircons of the same age and

composition must have been armoured in xenoliths disrupted

during the final eruption, being thus isolated from the sur-

rounding basalt during ascent to the surface.

Conclusions

1. We provide the first study focused on garnet and rutile in

pyroclastic sediments of the South Slovakian Volcanic Field

with the aim of deciphering their origin and provenance.

2. Almandine garnets have been derived from two contrasting

magmatic and metamorphic lithologies. Metamorphic gar-

nets (> 99 % of samples) with increased grossular and

pyrope contents were likely derived from garnet-mica

schists, gneisses, amphibolites or granulites, whereas

spessartite-rich magmatic garnets (<1 % of samples) are

probably derived from underlying basement granitoids or

granitoid pebbles in Tertiary basin deposits.

3. Based on Nb and Cr contents, rutiles can be affiliated with

metasedimentary source rocks. Formation temperatures

between 545 and 673 °C indicate amphibolite facies

conditions.

4. We assume that the assemblage of metamorphic minerals in

the pyroclastic sediments comes from the fragmented

pre-Tertiary gneiss-amphibolite basement. Some garnets

may also be correlated with granitoid host rocks that occur

as pebbles in Tertiary clastic sediments.

Fig. 8. a — Nb versus Cr discrimination diagrams for rutile from different metamorphic lithologies (modified after Zack et al. 2002). b — Plot

of temperatures calculated from Zr contents after Watson et al. (2006) versus mafic and pelitic compositions discriminated according to

log (Cr / Nb) value (modified after Triebold et al. 2007). Positive and negative log (Cr / Nb) values indicate rutile from metamafic and metape-

litic rocks, respectively. Note that the terms “metamafic” and “metapelitic” were introduced by Zack et al. (2002, 2004a) to distinguish

between the rutile sources, although simplified terms “mafic” and “felsic” would be more appropriate.

DETRITAL GARNETS AND RUTILES FROM BASALTIC PYROCLASTIC ROCKS OF SOUTHERN SLOVAKIA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2018, 69, 1, 17–29

Acknowledgements: The authors wish to express their thanks

to the reviewers for their thorough reviews, which conside-

rably improved the quality of this paper. This work was sup-

ported by the Comenius University project under the contract

No. UK/184/2017 and the VEGA grant 1/0143/18. We would

like to offer our special thanks to Prof. Pavel Uher for provi-

ding samples of sediments from Hajnáčka - Kostná dolina maar,

and to Dr. Patrik Konečný for electron probe analytical work.

References

Aubrecht R., Méres Š., Sýkora M. & Mikuš T. 2009: Provenance of

the detrital garnets and spinels from the Albian sediments of the

Czorstyn Unit (Pieniny Klippen Belt, Western Carpathians,

Slovakia). Geol. Carpath. 60, 463–483.

Aydar E. & Gourgaud A. 2002: Garnet-Bearing Basalts: An Example

from Mt. Hasan Central Anatolia Turkey. Mineral. Petrol. 75,

185–201.

Balogh K., Miháliková A. & Vass D. 1981: Radiometric dating of

basalt in Southern and Central Slovakia. Záp. Karpaty Ser. Geol.

7, 113–126.

Bónová K. 2005: Mineralogy, petrology and P-T conditions of magma

crystallization of the andesite bodies Maliniak and Lysá Stráž

from Lysá Stráž – Oblík formation, Eastern Slovakia. Miner.

Slov. 37, 503–512.

Bouloton J. & Paquette J.-L. 2014: In situ U–Pb zircon geochronology

of Neogene garnet-bearing lavas from Slovakia (Carpatho–

Pannonian region, Central Europe). Lithos 184–187, 17–26.

Brenan J.M., Shaw H.F., Phinney D.L. & Ryerson F.J. 1994: Rutile–

aqueous fluid partitioning of Nb, Ta, Hf, Zr, U and Th: implica-

tions for high field strength element depletions in island-arc

basalts. Earth. Planet. Sci. Lett. 128, 327–339.

Bromiley G.D. & Hilairet N. 2005: Hydrogen and minor element

incorporation in synthetic rutile. Mineral. Mag. 69, 345–358.

Carruzzo S., Clarke D.B., Pelrine K.M. & MacDonald M.A. 2006:

Texture, composition and origin of rutile in the South Mountain

Batholith, Nova Scotia. Can. Mineral. 44, 715–729.

Chen Z.Y. & Li Q.L. 2008: Zr-in-rutile thermometry in eclogite at

Jinheqiao in the Dabie orogen and its geochemical implications.

Chinese Sci. Bull. 53, 768–776.

Coleman R.G., Lee D.E., Beatty L.B. & Brannock W.W. 1965:

Eclogites and eclogites: their differences and similarities. Geol.

Soc. Am. Bull. 76, 483–508.

Dank V. & Fülöp J. (Eds.) 1990: Geological Structural map of

Hungary. MAFI, Budapest (in Hungarian).

Deer W.A., Howie R.A. & Zussman J. 1992: An introduction to the

rock-forming minerals. 2

Ed. Longmans, Essex, 1–696.

Deer W.A., Howie R.A. & Zussman J. 1997: Rock-forming minerals.

Volume 1A. Orthosilicates. 2

Ed. Longmans, London, 1– 919. 

Dobosi G., Fodor R.V. & Goldberg S.A. 1995: Late-Cenozoic alkali

basalt magmatism in Northern Hungary and Slovakia: petrology,

source compositions and relationship to tectonics. Acta Vulcanol.

7, 199–207.

Downes H., Pantó Gy., Póka T., Mattey D.P. & Greenwood P.B. 1995:

Calc-alkaline volcanics of the Inner Carpathian arc, Northern

Hungary: new geochemical and oxygen isotopic results. Acta

Vulcanol. 7, 29–41.

Elečko M., Hraško L. & Konečný P. 2008: Refinement of continua-

tion of crystalline complexes in the basement of neovolcanites

(Southern Slovakia). Open-file report, D. Štúr Inst. Geol.,

Bratislava, 1–123.

Faryad S.W. 1990: Gneiss-amphibolite complex of Gemericum.

Miner. Slov. 22, 303–318 (in Slovak).

Faryad S.W. 1995: Determination of P–T conditions of metamor-

phism in the Spiš-Gemer Ore Mts. (Western Carpathians). Miner.

Slov. 27, 9–19 (in Slovak).

Faryad S.W. 1996: Petrology of amphibolites and gneisses from

Branisko massif. Miner. Slov. 28, 265–272 (in Slovak).

Faryad S.W. & Dianiška I. 1989: Garnets from granitoids. Geol. Zbor.

Geol. Carpath. 40, 715–734.

Faryad S.W., Ivan P. & Jacko S. 2005: Metamorphic petrology of me-

tabasites from the Branisko and Čierna Hora Mountains (West-

ern Carpathians Slovakia). Geol. Carpath. 56, 3–16.

Ferry J.M. & Watson E.B. 2007: New thermodynamic models and

revised calibration for the Ti-in-zircon and Zr-in-rutile thermo-

meters. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 154, 429–437.

Force E.R. 1980: The provenance of rutile. J. Sediment. Petrol. 50,

485–488.

Force E.R. 1991: Geology of titanium-mineral deposits. Geol. Soc.

Amer. Spec. Paper 259, 1–112.

Goldsmith R. & Force E.R. 1978: Distribution of rutile in metamor-

phic rocks and implications for placer deposits. Miner. Deposita

13, 329–343.

Götze J. 1996: Genetic information of accessory minerals in clastic

sediments. Zbl. Geol. Paläont. 1, 101–118.

Graham J. & Morris R.C. 1973: Tungsten- and antimony-substituted

rutile. Mineral. Mag. 39, 470–473.

Harangi Sz., Downes H., Kósa L., Szabó Cs., Thirlwall M. F., Mason

P.R.D. & Mattey D. 2001: Almandine garnet in calc-alkaline

volcanic rocks of the Northern Pannonian Basin (Eastern- Central

Europe): Geochemistry, petrogenesis and geodynamic implica-

tions. J. Petrol. 42, 1813–1843.

Hassan W.F. 1994: Geochemistry and mineralogy of Ta-Nb rutile

from Peninsular Malaysia. J. Soc. Am. Earth Sci. 10, 11–23.

Hovorka D. & Lukáčik E. 1972: Xenoliths in andesites of the Massifs

Karanč, Šiator (Southern Slovakia) and their geologic interpreta-

tion. Geol. Zborn. Geol. Carp. 23, 297–303.

Hovorka D. & Méres Š. 1990: Clinopyroxene-garnet metabasites

from the Tribeč Mts. (Central Slovakia). Miner. Slov. 22,

533–538 (in Slovak).

Hovorka D., Méres Š. & Krištín J. 1987: Garnets from paragneisses

of the central zone of the West Carpathians. Miner. Slov. 19,

289–309.

Hovorka D., Méres Š. & Caňo F. 1992: Petrology of the garnet clino-

pyroxene metabasites from the Malá Fatra Mts. Miner. Slov. 24,

45–52 (in Slovak).

Hurai V., Paquette J.-L., Huraiová M. & Konečný P. 2010: U–Th–Pb

geochronology of zircon and monazite from syenite and pinci-

nite xenoliths in Pliocene alkali basalts of the intra-Carpathian

back-arc basin. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 198, 275–287.

Hurai V., Paquette J.-L., Huraiová M. & Sabol M. 2012: U–Pb geo-

chronology of zircons from fossiliferous sediments of the

Hajnáčka I maar (Slovakia) — type locality of the MN16a

biostratigraphic subzone. Geol. Mag. 149, 989–1000.

Hurai V., Danišík M., Huraiová M., Paquette J.-L. & Ádám A. 2013:

Combined U/Pb and (U–Th)/He geochronometry of basalt maars

in Western Carpathians: implications for age of intraplate

volcanism and origin of zircon metasomatism. Contrib. Mineral.

Petrol. 166, 1235–1251.

Huraiová M., Konečný P., Konečný V., Simon K. & Hurai V. (1996)

Mafic and salic xenoliths in Late Tertiary alkaline basalts: fluid

inclusion and mineralogical evidence for a deep-crustal

magmatic reservoir in the Western Carpathians. Eur. J. Mineral.

8, 901–916.

Huraiová M., Paquette J.-L., Konečný P., Gannoun A.-M. & Hurai V.

2017: Geochemistry, mineralogy, and zircon U-Pb-Hf isotopes

in peraluminous A-type granite xenoliths in Pliocene– Pleistocene

basalts of northern Pannonian Basin (Slovakia). Contrib.

Mineral. Petrol. 172, 8, Article number 59.

NEMEC and HURAIOVÁ

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2018, 69, 1, 17–29

Janák M. & Lupták B. 1997: Pressure-temperature conditions of high

grade metamorphism and migmatitization in the Malá Fatra

crystalline complex, the Western Carpathians. Geol. Carpath.

48, 5, 287–302.

Janák M., O’Brien P.J., Hurai V. & Reutel Ch. 1996: Metamorphic

evolution and fluid composition of garnet-clinopyroxene amphi-

bolites from the Tatra Mts., Western Carpathians. Lithos 39,

57–79.

Janák M., Plašienka D., Frey M., Cosca M., Schmidt S.T., Lupták B.

& Méres Š. 2001: Cretaceous evolution of a metamorphic core

complex, the Veporic unit, Western Carpathians (Slovakia): P–T

conditions and in situ

Ar/

Ar UV laser probe dating of meta-

pelites. J. Metamorph. Geol. 19, 197–216.

Kantor J. 1960: Cretaceous orogenic processes in the light of geo-

chronology of Veporic crystalline complex (Kohút zone). Geol.

Práce Správy 20, 5–27 (in Slovak).

Konečný V., Lexa J., Balogh K. & Konečný P. 1995: Alkali basalt

volcanism in Southern Slovakia — Volcanic forms and time

evolution. Acta Vulcanol. 7, 167–171.

Konečný V., Kováč M., Lexa J. & Šefara J. 2002: Neogene evolution

of the Carpatho-Pannonian region: an interplay of subduction

and back-arc diapiric uprise in the mantle. EGU Stephan Mueller

Spec. Publ. Ser. 1, 105–123.

Konečný V., Lexa J., Konečný P., Balogh K., Elečko M., Hurai V.,

Huraiová M., Pristaš J., Sabol M. & Vass D. 2004: Guidebook to

the Southern Slovakia Alkali Basalt Volcanic Field. D. Štúr Inst.

Geol., Bratislava, 1–143.

Korikovsky S.P., Dupej J., Boronikhin V.A. & Zinovieva N.G. 1990:

Zoned garnets and their equilibria in mica schists and gneisses of

Kohút crystalline complex, Hnúšťa region, Western Carpathians.

Geol. Zborn. Geol. Carpath. 41, 99–124.

Mange M.A. & Maurer H. 1992: Heavy minerals in the study of sedi-

ments: their application and limitations. In: Mange M.A. &

Maurer H. (Eds.): Heavy Minerals in Colour. Springer, 4–10.

Mange M.A. & Morton A.C. 2007: Geochemistry of Heavy Minerals.

In: Mange M.A. & Wright D.T., (Eds.): Heavy Minerals in Use.

Developments in Sedimentology 58, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 345–391.

Marková M. 1980: Mineralogical, petrographic and geochemical

investigation of Tertiary sediments of Lučenská kotlina Depres-

sion. D. Štúr Inst. Geol., Bratislava (in Slovak).

Marková M. 1982: Report from mineralogical and petrographic in-

vestigation of samples from borehole JH-1 Nižný Skálnik,

D. Štúr Inst. Geol., Bratislava (in Slovak).

Meinhold G. 2010: Rutile and its applications in earth sciences. Earth

Sci. Rev. 102, 1–28.

Meinhold G., Anders B., Kostopoulos D. & Reischmann T. 2008:

Rutile chemistry and thermometry as provenance indicator:

an example from Chios Island, Greece. Sediment. Geol. 203,

98–111.

Méres Š. 2008: Garnets — important informations resource about

source area and parental rocks of the siliciclastic sedimentary

rocks. In: Jurkovič L. (Ed.): Conference “Cambelove dni 2008”,

Abstract Book, Comenius Univ., Bratislava, 37–43 (in Slovak).

Méres Š. & Hovorka D. 1989: Metamorphic development of gneisses

in the Suchý, Malá Magura and Malá Fatra Mts. (Central

Slovakia). Miner. Slov. 21, 203–216 (in Slovak).

Méres Š. & Hovorka D. 1991: Geochemistry and metamorphic evolu-

tion of the Kohút crystalline complex mica schists (the Western

Carpathians). Acta Geol. Geogr. Univ. Com. Geol. 47, 15–66.

Méres Š., Ivan P. & Hovorka D. 2000: Garnet-pyroxene metabasites

and antigorite serpentinites — evidence of the leptyno-amphibo-

lite complex in the Branisko Mts. (Tatric Unit, central Western

Carpathians). Miner. Slov. 32, 479–486.

Miháliková A. & Šímová M. 1989: Geochemistry and petrology of

Miocene-Pleistocene alkali basalts of Middle and South

Slovakia. Záp. Karpaty Ser. Geol. 12, 7–142 (in Slovak).

Miyashiro A. & Shido F. 1973: Progressive compositional change of

garnet in metapelite. Lithos 6, 13–20.

Morton A.C. 1985: Heavy minerals in provenance studies. In:

Zuffa G.G. (Ed.): Provenance of Arenites. Reidel, Dordrecht,

249–277.

Morton A.C. & Hallsworth C.R. 2007: Stability of detrital heavy min-

erals during burial diagenesis. In: Mange M.A., Wright D.T.

(Eds.): Heavy minerals in Use. Developments in Sedimentology

58, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 215–245.

Morton A.C., Hallsworth C. & Chalton B. 2004: Garnet compositions

in Scottish and Norwegian basement terrains: a framework for

interpretation of North Sea sandstone provenance. Mar. Petrol.

Geol. 21, 393–410.

Murad E., Cashion J.D., Noble C.J. & Pilbrow J.R. 1995: The chemi-

cal state of Fe in rutile from an albitite in Norway. Mineral. Mag.

59, 557–560.

Nandi K. 1967: Garnets as indices of progressive regional metamor-

phism. Mineral. Mag. 36, 89–93.

Ohsaka, T., Izumi, F. & Fujiki, Y., 1978. Raman spectrum of anatase,

TiO

. J. Raman Spectrosc. 7, 321–324.

Oszczypko N. & Salata D. 2005: Provenance analyses of the Late

Cretaceous–Palaeocene deposits of the Magura Basin (Polish

Western Carpathians) – evidence from a study of heavy minerals.

Acta Geol. Pol. 55, 237–267.

Pécskay Z., Lexa J., Szakács A., Seghedi I., Balogh K., Konečný V.,

Zelenka T., Kovacs M., Póka T., Fülöp A., Márton E., Panaiotu C.

& Cvetković V. 2006: Geochronology of Neogene magmatism

in the Carpathian arc and intra-Carpathian area. Geol. Carpath.

57, 511–530.

Planderová E. 1986: Biostratigraphic evaluation of sediments

of the Poltár Formation. Geol. Práce Správy 84, 113–118 (in

Slovak).

Plašienka D., Grecula P., Putiš M., Kováč M. & Hovorka D. 1997:

Evolution and structure of the Western Carpathians: An over-

view. In: Grecula P., Hovorka D. & Putiš M. (Eds.): Geological

Evolution of the Western Carpathians. Miner. Slov. Monogr.,

Geocomplex, Bratislava, 1–24.

Plašienka D., Janák M., Lupták B., Milovský R., Frey M. 1999: Kine-

matics and Metamorphism of Cretaceous Core Complex:

the Veporic Unit of the Western Carpathians. Phys. Chem.

Earth (A) 24, 8, 651–685.

Porto, S.P.S., Fleury, P.A. & Damen, T.C. 1967: Raman spectra of

TiO

, MgF

, ZnF

, FeF

, and MnF

. Phys. Rev. 154, 522–526.

Preston R.J., Hartley A., Hole M.J., Buck S., Bond J., Mange-

Rajetzky M. & Still J. 1998: Integrated whole-rock trace ele-

ment geochemistry and heavy-mineral chemistry studies: aids to

the correlation of continental red-bed reservoirs in the Beryl

Field, U.K. North Sea. Petrol. Geosci. 4, 7–16.

Preston J., Hartley A., Mange-Rajetzky M., Hole M.J., May G. &

Buck S. 2002: The provenance of Triassic continental sand-

stones from the Beryl Field, northern North Sea: mineralogical,

geochemical, and sedimentological constraints. J. Sedim. Res.

72, 18–29.

Rankenburg K., Lassiter J.C. & Brey G.P. 2004: Origin of megacrysts

in volcanic rocks of the Cameroon Volcanic Chain — Constraints

on magma genesis and crustal contamination. Contrib. Mineral.

Petrol. 147, 129–144.

Rice C., Darke K. & Still J. 1998: Tungsten-bearing rutile

from the Kori Kollo gold mine, Bolívia. Mineral. Mag. 62,

421–429.

Rollinson H. R. 1999: Petrology and geochemistry of metamorphosed

komatiites and basalts from the Sula Mountains Greenstone Belt,

Sierra Leone. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 134, 86–101.

Sabeen H. M., Ramanujam N. & Morton A.C. 2002: The provenance

of garnet: constraints provided by studies of coastal sediments

from southern India. Sediment. Geol. 152, 279–287.

DETRITAL GARNETS AND RUTILES FROM BASALTIC PYROCLASTIC ROCKS OF SOUTHERN SLOVAKIA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2018, 69, 1, 17–29

Sabol M., Balogh K., Ďurišová A., Elečko M., Hensel K., Holec P.,

Hudáčková N., Janštová M., Kernátsová J., Klembara J.,

Konečný P., Konečný V., Pipík R., Slamková M., Sitár V., Túnyi

I. & Vass D. 2004: Early Villanyian site of Hajnáčka I (southern

Slovakia). Gemer-Malohont Musem, Rimavská Sobota,

Comenius Univ., Bratislava, 143 p.

Šarinová K. 2008: Identification of the source rocks of detrital garnets

by their chemical composition (Western Carpathians, Slovakia).

Miner. Slov. 40, 33-44.

Scott K.M. 2005: Rutile geochemistry as a guide to porphyry Cu–Au

mineralization, Northparkes, New South Wales, Australia.

Geochem. Explor. Env. A 5, 247–253.

Skewes M.A. & Stern C.R. 1979: Petrology and geochemistry of

alkali basalts and ultramafic inclusions from the Pali-Aike

Volcanic Field in Southern Chile and the origin of Patagonian

Plateau lavas, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 6, 3–25.

Smith D. & Perseil E.A. 1997: Sb-rich rutile in the manganese

concentrations at St. Marcel-Praborna, Aosta Valley, Italy,

petrology and crystal-chemistry. Mineral. Mag. 61, 655–669.

Snopková, P. & Bajaník, Š. 1979: Evidence of Devonian (givetian–

frasnian) in borehole FV-1 Blhovce. Geol. Práce Správy 72,

7–17 (in Slovak).

Spišiak J. & Hovorka D. 1985: Two types of garnet-bearing amphi-

bolites from Klátov Group. Miner. Slov. 17, 167–174.

Suggate S.M. & Hall R. 2014: Using detrital garnet compositions to

determine provenance: a new compositional database and proce-

dure. In: Scott R.A., Smyth H.R., Morton A.C. & Richardson N.

(Eds.): Sediment Provenance Studies in Hydrocarbon Exploration

and Production. Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ. 386, 373–393.

Tomkins H.S., Powell R. & Ellis D.J. 2007: The pressure dependence

of the zirconium-in-rutile thermometer. J. Metamorph. Geol. 25,

703–713.

Tompsett, G.A., Bowmaker, G.A., Cooney, R.P., Metson, J.B.,

Rodgers, K.A. & Seakins, J.M. 1995: The Raman spectrum of

brookite, TiO

(Pbca, Z=8). J. Raman Spectrosc. 26, 57–62.

Triebold S., von Eynatten H., Luvizotto G.L. & Zack T. 2007: Deducing

source rock lithology from detrital rutile geo chemistry: an exam-

ple from the Erzgebirge, Germany. Chem. Geol. 244, 421–436.

Vass D. & Bajaník Š. 1988: Structural Borehole FV-1 (Blhovce). Reg.

Geol. Záp. Karpát 23, 1–86.

Vass D. & Elečko M. 1992: Explanation to the gological map

of Lučenská kotlina Depression and Cerová vrchovina Upland.

D. Štúr Inst. Geol., Bratislava, 1–196 (in Slovak).

Vass D. & Kraus I. 1985: Two basalts of different age in southern

Slovakia and their relation to the Poltár Formation. Miner. Slov.

17, 435–440 (in Slovak).

Vass D., Elečko M. & Bodnár J. 1981: Tectonics of Rimavská kotlina

Depression. Geol. Práce Spr. 75, 77–90.

Vass D., Elečko M. & Konečný V. 2007: Geology of Lučenská kotlina

Depression and Cerová vrchovina Upland. D. Štúr Inst. Geol.,

Bratislava, 1–117 (in Slovak).

von Eynatten H. & Gaupp R. 1999: Provenance of Cretaceous syn-

orogenic sandstones in the Eastern Alps: constraints from frame-

work petrography, heavy mineral analysis and mineral chemistry.

Sediment. Geol. 124, 81–111.

Vozárová A. 1993: Pressure-temperature conditions of metamor-

phism in the northern part of the Branisko Crystalline Complex.

Geol. Carpath. 44, 219–232.

Vozárová A. & Faryad S.W. 1997: Petrology of Branisko crystalline

rock complex. In: Grecula P., Hovorka D. & Putiš M. (Eds.):

Geological Evolution of the Western Carpathians. Miner. Slov.

Monogr., Bratislava, 343–350.

Vozárová A. & Vozár J. 1988: Late Paleozoic in West Carpathians.

D. Štúr Inst. Geol., Bratislava, 1–314.

Watson E.B., Wark D.A. & Thomas J.B. 2006: Crystallization ther-

mometers for zircon and rutile. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 151,

413–433.

Zack T., Kronz A., Foley S.F. & Rivers T. 2002: Trace element abun-

dances in rutiles from eclogites and associated garnet mica

schists. Chem. Geol. 184, 97–122.

Zack T., von Eynatten H.V. & Kronz A. 2004a: Rutile geochemistry

and its potential use in quantitative provenance studies. Sediment.

Geol. 171, 37–58.

Zack T., Moraes R. & Kronz A. 2004b: Temperature dependence of Zr

in rutile: empirical calibration of a rutile thermometer. Contrib.

Mineral. Petrol. 148, 471–488.