GeolCarp_Vol68_No4_285

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, AUGUST 2017, 68, 4, 285 – 302

doi: 10.1515/geoca-2017-0020

www.geologicacarpathica.com

Geological evolution of the southwestern part of

the Veporic Unit (Western Carpathians):

based on fission track and morphotectonic data

RASTISLAV VOJTKO

, SILVIA KRÁLIKOVÁ

, PAUL ANDRIESSEN

, ROBERTA PROKEŠOVÁ

JOZEF MINÁR

and PETR JEŘÁBEK

Department of Geology and Palaeontology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská dolina, Ilkovičova 6,

842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia; vojtko@fns.uniba.sk

Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Section Isotope Geochemistry, Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Department of Geography and Geology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Matej Bel University, Banská Bystrica, Tajovského 40,

974 01 Banská Bystrica, Slovakia

Department of Physical Geography and Geoecology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská dolina B1,

Ilkovičova 6, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia

Institute of Petrology and Structural Geology, Charles University in Prague, Albertov 6, 128 43 Prague, Czech Republic

(Manuscript received June 27, 2016; accepted in revised form March 15, 2017)

Abstract: Zircon and apatite fission track (FT) and morphotectonic analyses were applied in order to infer quantitative

constraints on the Alpine morphotectonic evolution of the western part of the Southern Veporic Unit which is related to:

(1) Eo-Alpine Cretaceous nappe stacking and metamorphism of the crystalline basement in the greenschist facies.

(2) Exhumation phase due to underthrusting of the northerly located Tatric-Fatric basement (~ 90–80 Ma), followed by

a passive en-block exhumation with cooling through ~ 320–200 °C during the Palaeocene (ZFT ages of ~ 61–55 Ma).

(3) Slow Eocene cooling through ~ 245–90 °C, which most likely reflected erosion of the overlying cover nappes and the

Gosau Group sediments. Cooling reached up to 60 °C till the Oligocene (AFT ages of ~ 37–22 Ma) in association with

erosion of cover nappes. The efficient Eocene erosion led to the formation of the first Cenozoic planation surface with

supergene kaolinization in many places. (4) The early Miocene erosion coincided with surface lowering and resulted in

the second planation surface favourable for kaolinization. (5) In the middle Miocene, the study area was covered by the

Poľana, Javorie, and Vepor stratovolcanoes. (6) The late Miocene stage was related to the erosion and formation of the

third Cenozoic planation surface and the final shaping of the mountains was linked to a new accelerated uplift from the

Pliocene.

Keywords:

Western Carpathians, Veporic Unit,

morphotectonic

evolution, fission track analysis, planation surfaces,

exhumation.

Introduction

Following the collision and nappe stacking processes during

the Alpine orogeny, the study area underwent an episode of

exhumation as a result of such factors as compressive tecto-

nics, post-orogenetic unroofing, and isostatic readjustment.

Modern measurement techniques, such as zircon and apatite

fission track analyses, have helped to establish useful exhuma-

tion and denudation chronologies.

The Western Carpathians occupy the north-eastern part of

the Alpine orogen of Europe. In the west, the Western

Carpathians are connected with the Eastern Alps and share

a similar Variscan and Alpine tectonic evolution. They are

traditionally divided into three principal parts — External,

Central, and Internal (e.g., Plašienka et al. 1997, 1999;

Froitzheim et al. 2008), or two principal parts — Outer and

Inner Western Carpathians (e.g., Mišík et al. 1985 pp. 304–344;

Biely 1989; Bezák et al. 2004; Hók et al. 2014), depending

on application of either Mesozoic or Cenozoic structure,

respectively.

The Veporic Unit represents the middle of the thick-skinned

thrust sheets (a.k.a. the Middle Group of Nappes — cf. Hók et

al. 2014) incorporated into the Eo-Alpine structure of the

Central Western Carpathians. It is overthrust by the Gemeric

Unit (a.k.a. the Upper Group of Nappes) along the Lubeník–

Margecany thrust and both override the Tatric sheet (a.k.a.

the Lower Group of Nappes) in the north-west along the

Čertovica thrust (Fig. 1). This Eo-Alpine nappe pile is tecto-

nically overlain by the Jurassic Meliata subduction-accretio-

nary complex (Kozur & Mock 1973, 1997; Faryad 1995;

Faryad & Henjes-Kunst 1997; Lačný et al. 2016) and by the

Silicic thin-skinned nappe system (e.g., Mello 1979) and is

exposed from beneath the post-nappe Palaeogene and Neogene

sedimentary formations and Neogene to Quaternary volca-

nites or volcano-sedimentary covers (Dublan et al. 1997a,b).

Much progress has been made in recent years towards

understanding the processes of Alpine metamorphism during

the nappe stacking (e.g., Vrána 1964; Janák et al. 2001; Finger

et al. 2003; Luptá

k et al. 20

04; Jeřábek et al. 2008a,b, 2012),

but the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic evolution is still not well

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2017, 68, 4, 285 – 302

Unit (Lexa et al. 2003; Jeřábek et al. 2007, 2012; Bukovská et

al. 2013). With the ongoing collision, this fabric was folded.

The southern boundary between the Veporic and Gemeric

units was intruded by the subsurface Rochovce Granite of

Cretaceous age (Hraško et al. 1999; Poller et al. 2001; Kohút

et al. 2013). The Alpine exhumation in the central part of

the Veporic Unit took place during the Late Cretaceous to

Palaeogene (Králiková 2013; Vojtko et al. 2016).

The Veporic cover is characterised by the Foederata sequence

overlying the Southern Veporic crystalline basement and by

the Veľký Bok sequence which is confined to the Northern

Veporic crystalline basement. The Foederata cover sequence

forms an autochthonous or para-autochthonous sedimentary

cover of the Variscan Southern Veporic crystalline basement.

Its probable age ranges from the Late Carboniferous to Late

Triassic. Jurassic rocks were inferred by several authors (e.g.,

Klinec 1976) but their presence was not proved yet (e.g.,

Plašienka 1993; Bezák et al. 1999a,b; Vojtko 2000; Vojtko et

al. 2000, 2015). The cover sequence, together with its base-

ment, is metamorphosed under the greenschist facies and

intensively ductilely deformed (350–400 °C at 400–450 MPa;

cf. Lupták et al. 2003; Jeřabek et al. 2008a). However, the

south-eastern portion of the crystalline basement suffered

450–500 °C (Jeřábek et al. 2008a). The study area is located

only in a part of the southern Veporic Unit where the cover has

already been removed by erosion (Fig. 2).

Post-nappe sedimentary and volcanic formations

To understand the circumstances of the Veporic crystalline

basement exhumation, we have to consider several deposi-

tional stages in the time span from Late Cretaceous to

Cenozoic.

The oldest sedimentary sequence of the Late

Cretaceous to earliest Palaeocene age is represented by grey

calcareous claystones which belong to the Gosau Group

(Mišík 1978; Mišík & Sýkora 1980; Gašpariková 1986; Vass

et al. 2001). The redeposited Upper Cretaceous fauna fre-

quently occurs also in pre-transgressive to transgressive

deposits of the Buda Basin.

After a long period of erosion in the whole Veporic and

Gemeric area, a new sedimentary cycle started by deposits of

the fore-arc type Central Carpathian Palaeogene Basin in the

Priabonian. The sedimentary succession is mainly composed

of deep marine, siliciclastic turbidites of the Eocene–Oligocene

age. The termination of sedimentation can be indirectly dated

to the Oligocene/Early Miocene boundary. The erosive rem-

nants of these deposits occur in the Horehronie Valley —

Ľubietová, Brezno, and Tisovec sites (Pulec 1966; Vojtko

2000; Plašienka & Soták 2001; Zlinská et al. 2001; Soták et al.

2005; Žecová et al. 2006; Vojtko et al. 2015; Fig. 1).

Beside this, the southern part of the Veporic area was cove-

red by transgressive deposits of the Upper Rupelian to Lower

Chattian Číž Formation (Fm.) (Vass & Elečko 1982) which in

the lowermost part contains kaolin clays from weathered

crusts located in the north (Kraus 1989). This formation

belongs to the retro-arc type Buda Basin (Tari et al. 1993).

The overlying Chattian to Aquitanian deposits are composed

of basinal calcareous claystones and siltstones belonging to

the Lučenec Fm. (Andrusov 1965; Vass & Elečko 1982; Vass

et al. 2007). The evolution of the Buda Basin was terminated

by the Aquitanian eastward extrusion of the ALCAPA Mega-

unit from the Eastern Alpine-Adriatic collisional zone (cf.

Csontos et al. 1992; Kováč et al. 2016). In the Late Aquitanian–

Early Burdigalian (Eggenburgian), the Fiľakovo-Pétervására

Basin developed. However, the spatial extent of deposits was

less than the deposits of the Buda Basin (Sztanó 1994;

Halásová et al. 1996; Kováč et al. 2016). During the

Burdigalian

, an activity of the Pannonian asthenolith resulted

in uplift and marine regression accompanied by extensive acid

volcanism in this area. However, in the deeper part of the

depression continental sediments with layers of rhyodacite

tuffs (in northern Hungary) were deposited

(

Vass 1995).

The overlying Salgótarján Fm. is represented by paralic

sedi mentation with coal seams typical for the Novohrad-

Nógrad Basin. However, a gradual northward sea transgres-

sion led to subsequent marine sedimentation in southern

Slovakia. Subsidence of the basin reached the maximum in the

Late Burdigalian (Karpatian), which was immediately fol-

lowed by rapid regression and erosion. The last transgression

in the area of southern Slovakia occurred during the middle

Langhian (Early Badenian), at this time the marine and deltaic

sediments of the Vinica Fm. were deposited (Vass 1977, 2002).

Volcanic activity prevailed in the study area during the

Langhian and Serravallian (Badenian–Sarmatian) when the

Javorie, Poľana, and Vepor stratovolcanoes developed. These

predominantly andesite stratovolcanoes have a complex, poly-

genetic structure, and polystage development (cf. Konečný et

al. 1983, 1998a,b; Lexa et al. 1993; Dublan et al. 1997a,b;

Lexa & Konečný 1998; Vojtko 2000; Konečný et al. 2015a,b).

Finally, river sediments (Poltár Fm.) with high contents of

kaoline clays were deposited in the Southern Slovak Basin.

These sediments are of the same age of ~ 6–7 Ma as the basaltic

volcanism of the Podrečany Fm. (Balogh et al. 1981; Kantor

& Wiegerová 1981; Vass & Kraus 1985; Konečný et al. 1995).

Methods

Fission track analysis

For geochronological study, five Upper Devonian to Lower

Carboniferous granite rocks samples were collected from the

western part of the Veporic crystalline basement close to the

Poľana Stratovolcano. All the samples were taken from sur-

face outcrops (Fig. 2).

Apatite and zircon fission track (AFT, ZFT) analyses were

carried out at the Fission Track Laboratory of Isotope

Geochemistry section, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. After

the conventional mineral separation (crushing, sieving, mag-

netic, and heavy liquid separation), apatites were mounted in

epoxy resin, while zircons were placed in PFA

Teflon sheets.

Polished apatite mounts were etched in 7 % HNO

for 35 s at

289

GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE SW VEPORIC UNIT BASED ON FT AND MORPHOTECTONICS

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2017, 68, 4, 285 – 302

20 °C (temperature controlled) in order to reveal spontaneous

fission tracks. In the case of polished zircon mounts, the eutec-

tic melt of NaOH-KOH was used at the temperature of 225 °C

for 20 hours. The etched mounts were attached against

an external detector and subsequently irradiated at the nuclear

reactor in Munich. During irradiation, the neutron flux was

monitored using CN5 dosimeter glass for the apatite mounts

and CN1 dosimeter glass for the zircon mounts. After irradia-

tion, induced fission tracks in external detector muscovites of

the mineral mounts were etched in 48 % HF for 12 min at

21 °C; the external muscovites of the dosimeters were etched

in 48 % HF for 16 min at 21 °C. Fission tracks were counted

with 1250× magnification with a dry objective using a com-

puter-controlled Zeiss Axioplan microscope equipped with

an automated Dumitru stage. All the samples were analysed

using the external detector method as described by Gleadow

(1981). The zeta calibration approach (Hurford & Green 1983)

was adopted to determine the central FT ages. Data processing

was carried out using the TRACKKEY program, version 4.2.f

(Dunkl 2002). The probability of grains counted in a sample

belonging to a single population of ages was assessed by

a P(χ

) probability test (Galbraith 1981). Long axes of the FT

etch-pits (D

par

method; Donelick 1993; Burtner et al. 1994)

were measured as a proxy for annealing properties. Track

lengths were measured on horizontal confined tracks in c-axis

parallel surfaces of apatites and were normalized for crystallo-

graphic angle using a c-axis projection (Donelick et al. 1999;

Ketcham et al. 2007). Thermal histories of the samples were

modelled using the HeFTy

programme (Ketcham 2005) and

multi-kinetic annealing model of Ketcham et al. (2007). D

par

values of apatites were included in the modelling as indicator

for the chemical composition of the single grain ages.

Morphotectonic analysis

All the samples for thermochronological study were col-

lected along a nearly horizontal profile with altitudinal diffe-

rence between sampling sites of up to 200 m. Because the

sampling sites are located in the area of relatively well pre-

served palaeosurfaces, including the largest one, the Sihlianska

planina (plateau), altitudinal positions of sampling sites with

respect to these palaeosurfaces were analysed. Although the

structure and quantity of fission track data do not allow accu-

rate modelling of coupled thermal and geomorphic history

(e.g., Safran 2003; Valla et al. 2011), some valuable indica-

tions of former palaeorelief were obtained from the morpho-

tectonic analysis.

The remnants of the palaeosurface have been delineated on

a 10-m resolution DEM (DMR SR 3 provided by the Topo-

graphic Institute in Banská Bystrica) using highly automated

DEM-based fuzzy-logic methodology developed by Haider et

al (2015). As a first step, four basic raster images, namely

slope, curvature, terrain roughness index (TRI), and relative

high (RH) raster, were generated from DEM using standard

tools integrated in the ArcGIS Info 10.2 (including 3D Analyst

and Spatial Analyst extensions). For TRI calculation, the

ArcGIS Toolbox for Surface Gradient and Geomorphometric

Modeling, version 2.0-0 (Evans et al. 2014) was also used. To

obtain more compact results, some degree of smoothing was

applied to these basic raster images. Then, the fuzzy member-

ship maps were generated using fuzzy logic criteria similar to

those proposed by Haider et al. (2015). Accordingly, the maxi-

mum (membership degree of 100 %) and minimum (member-

ship degree of 0 %) thresholds for slope membership raster

were set to 10° and 30°. This means that flat surfaces with

slopes of up to 10° are considered as hundred percent potential

planation surfaces. Applying linear change of membership

degree between thresholds and providing that the likelihood is

> 80 %, flat surfaces tilted more than 14° are not considered to

be potential planation surfaces. Alternatively, the maximum

and minimum threshold values for TRI membership raster

were set to 80 and 100 m. For curvature membership raster we

used Gaussian membership type with midpoint “0” and spread

“1”. The criteria for construction of the RH surface were

modi fied to match the characteristics of the relief in the study

area. The elevation points used for interpolation of the local

erosional base level map were acquired as intersections of 3

and higher orders streams (Strahler ordering) and contour

lines (50 m contour interval), excluding the few elevation

points clearly on spread planation surfaces. Subsequently, the

RH surface was obtained as a difference between the recent

topography and this erosional base level surface. To exclude

river terraces and young pediments, threshold values for fuzzy

membership RH map were set to 100 and 50 m for maximum

and minimum membership degrees, respectively. The final

map of palaeosurfaces was obtained using fuzzy overlay

(“and” type) of all four membership raster. To increase the

reliability of the results, the likelihood threshold for the fuzzy

overlay raster was set to 90 %. The focal statistics (floating

window size 30 by 30 pixels) were used to obtain final raster

image.

To take into consideration possible neotectonic differen-

tiation of a previously uniform palaeosurface, the most

dis tin ctive morpholineaments were visually identified in

the sur rounding of outcrops used for fission track analysis.

The depth of the sampling site below planation surface was

computed by subtraction of its altitude from the maximum

altitude of best preserved remnant of the planation surface

from the surrounding area bounded by morpholineaments.

Fission track data

The locations and analytical results of the samples are pre-

sented in Figs. 2–4. All samples were taken from surface out-

crops

. The data are displayed in Table 1 as central

ages

(Galbraith & Laslett 1993) with

errors quoted as ±1σ.

ZFT ages were determined for five samples (DTHRI01–

DTHRI05 samples), yielding Palaeocene to Early Eocene cen-

tral ages ranging from 61.5±2.7 to 55.6±2.8 Ma (Table 1). All

ZFT ages passed the chi-squared probability test (P(χ

) >5 %;

Galbraith 1981), indicating that

all grains in each sample

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GEOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF THE SW VEPORIC UNIT BASED ON FT AND MORPHOTECTONICS

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2017, 68, 4, 285 – 302

Results of morphotectonic analysis

The arrangement of potential planation surfaces

(formation

of the near-sea-level, low-relief erosional surface)

is depicted

in Fig. 5. The largest remnant westward of Hriňová town is

the Sihlianska planina (plateau) that is generally considered

as the Miocene planation surface (Lukniš 1964), formed

before the origin of the Poľana Stratovolcano (Urbánek

2002). Clear altitudinal differences are visible along morpho-

lineaments (palaeosurfaces reach up 900 m a.s.l. on the south,

1100 m a.s.l. on the west and 1000 m a.s.l. on the north)

poin ting to neotectonic differentiation of the palaeosurface

(Lacika 1993). It is supported by directional coincidence of

morpholineaments and main faults (cf. Fig. 2 and 4). The Sla-

tina Valley is a local centre of relative subsidence, where the

palaeosurface reaches only 770 m a.s.l. near DTHRI03 and

DTHRI04.

There is no ZFT age-altitude relationships in the study area,

but certain relation can be seen between the age and depth

below the preserved planation surface (Table 1). It is known,

that relatively deep ZFT closure isotherm is generally less

sensitive to palaeotopography (Braun 2002; Glotzbach et al.

2015). Thus, the ZFT data usually do not provide valuable

information about the character of contemporary palaeorelief.

On the other hand, we can suppose a former altitudinal unity

of till now preserved palaeosurface and its neotectonic diffe-

rentiation. Considering nearly flat ZFT isotherm, a denuda-

tion rate less than 0.02 mm/year can be calculated from the

relation between ZFT age and depth below the palaeosurface.

This value is much lower than the modelled cooling rates

(Figs. 6 and 7). Therefore, small differences in altitude of

sampling sites or depth below the palaeosurface indicate that

all samples are from the same ZPAZ zone.

The AFT ages are considerably younger than those obtained

in other Veporic areas (cf. Vojtko et al. 2016). Moreover, the

disturbed character of ages is obvious, but no significant rela-

tionships were detected between age and altitude of sampling

site or depth below the planation surface. On the other hand,

the elevation differences between sampling sites are very

small, and if neglected (i.e. sampling profile will be consi-

dered as horizontal), such age perturbation can indicate pro-

nounced topography during AFT system closure (Braun 2002;

Glotzbach et al. 2015). In this case, the younging trend from

the NW to SE indicates a palaeoslope inclined from SE to

the NW.

Alpine tectonic evolution

Eo-Alpine Early Cretaceous nappe stacking

The Alpine shortening and burial history of the Veporic

Unit began in the Early Cretaceous following overthrusting of

the Jurassic Meliata subduction-accretionary complex onto

the Gemeric Unit (Kozur & Mock 1973; Maluski et al. 1993;

Dallmeyer et al. 1996; Faryad & Henjes-Kunst 1997; Árkai et

Table 1:

ZFT

and

AFT

data

from

the

western

part

the

Veporic

Unit,

estern

Carpathians.

Zeta ±

1σ

—

ages

were

calculated

using

the

zeta

calibration

method

(Hurford

Green

1983)

with

error

quoted

± 1σ

(Green

1981).

Zircon

ages

were

calcu

lated

using

dosimeter

glass

CN1

with

zeta

value

128 ± 3

year/cm

(analyst:

Paul

Andriessen), apatite

ages using dosimeter

glass CN5

with

a zeta

value

358 ±10

year/cm

(analyst:

Paul

Andriessen);

N = numbe

r of

counted

grains

per

sample;

, (

) = density

spontaneous

(induced)

trac

(×10

tr/cm

);

Ns,

(Ni) = number

counted

spontaneous (induced)

tracks;

density

dosimeter

tracks

(×10

tr/cm

);

Nd = number

counted

dosimeter

tracks;

P(χ

) = probability

obtaining

values

for n degrees

of freedom

where

n =

number

crystals –1;

Central

age

(Ma)

± 1σ

error

(Galbraith

Lasle

1993).

par

= average

diameter

the

fission

track

etch-pits

parallel

the

crystallographic

c-axis

(Donelick

1993);

MTL = mean confined horizontal track length; SD = standard deviation of track lengths; N (L) = number of horizontal confined tracks measured.

Sample

Latitude

Longitude

Altitude

PaleoAlti/Depth

Petr

ography

Chr

onostratigraphy

P(χ²)

Central age

Dpar

MTL

N (L)

code

WGS-84

(m asl.)

(m)

(Ma) ± 1σ

µm

Zircon

DTHR1

48°37’58.34”N

19°31’42.19”E

780

880/100

tonalite

Late Devonian–

Early Carboniferous

5.175

1709

23.983

792

4.346

8973

99.5

59.7±3.0

DTHR2

48°37’18.65”N

19°32’02.58”E

680

880/200

tonalite

Late Devonian–

Early Carboniferous

5.054

1669

25.194

832

4.346

8973

78.2

55.6±2.8

DTHR3

48°35’50.68”N

19°32’17.55”E

580

770/190

tonalite

Late Devonian–

Early Carboniferous

4.51

1507

22.150

740

4.346

8973

88.8

56.4±2.9

DTHR4

48°36’30.59”N

19°34’09.78”E

590

770/180

tonalite

Late Devonian–

Early Carboniferous

4.928

1126

22.759

520

4.346

8973

80.9

59.9±3.5

DTHR5

48°35’25.61”N

19°36’00.37”E

710

820/1

granodiorite

Late Devonian–

Early Carboniferous

7.399

2685

33.289

1208

4.346

8973

97.7

61.5±2.7

Apatite

DTHR1

48°37’58.34”N

19°31’42.19”E

780

880/100

tonalite

Late Devonian–

Early Carboniferous

2.563

309

13.344

1609

10.099

20850

99.9

34.6±2.4

1.64‒2.34

12.95

1.39

DTHR2

48°37’18.65”N

19°32’02.58”E

680

880/200

tonalite

Late Devonian–

Early Carboniferous

5.813

759

28.156

3676

10.099

20850

72.8

37.2±1.8

1.91‒2.34

12.30

1.71

DTHR3

48°35’50.68”N

19°32’17.55”E

580

770/190

tonalite

Late Devonian–

Early Carboniferous

4.053

554

27.146

371

10.099

20850

99.9

26.9±1.5

1.79‒2.34

13.08

1.48

102

DTHR4

48°36’30.59”N

19°34’09.78”E

590

770/180

tonalite

Late Devonian–

Early Carboniferous

4.51

615

26.225

3575

10.099

20850

100.0

31.0±1.6

2.16‒2.53

12.67

1.59

109

DTHR5

48°35’25.61”N

19°36’00.37”E

710

820/1

granodiorite

Late Devonian–

Early Carboniferous

3.952

349

32.212

2845

10.099

20850

99.9

22.1±1.4

1.85‒2.24

13.31

1.66

292

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2017, 68, 4, 285 – 302

al. 2003; Putiš et al. 2014, 2015; Lačný et al. 2016). In these

early convergent stages, the Veporic Unit suffered an internal

shortening and thickening documented by upright folding.

These early structures were mostly obliterated by the subse-

quent major deformation associated with the development of

subhorizontal mylonitic foliation and the W–E orogen-parallel

extension (Hók et al. 1993; Plašienka 1993; Janák et al. 2001;

Jeřábek et al. 2007, 2008a). In the study area, the Alpine meta-

morphism shows the greenschist facies conditions of 450 °C

at 400–450 MPa (Jeřábek et al. 2008a). The Eo-Alpine

metamorphism may be as old as ~ 115 Ma, as was revealed

Ar/

Ar and K–Ar ages (Maluski et al. 1993; Kováčik

et al. 1996, 1997) and Sm–Nd whole rock-garnet isochron

(~ 109 Ma; Lupták et al. 2004). The orogen-parallel extension

of the Veporic Unit finished at latest by ~ 97 Ma, as is sugges-

ted by the post-kinematic growth of monazite in the southern

Foederata cover sequences, revealed by the laser ablation

ICP-MS dating (Bukovská et al. 2013). At the same time, the

northern part of the Veporic Unit still experienced thrusting

and internal imbrications, related to the onset of underthrus-

ting of the Fatric basement from the north, recorded by white

mica

Ar/

Ar ages of ~ 95–90 Ma from the lower-grade shear

zones in the northern parts of the Veporic dome (Plašienka

2003; Putiš et al. 2009).

Cretaceous to Neogene exhumation/denudation

The continuing N–S convergence and initiation of under-

thrusting of the Tatric–Fatric basement southward switched

the Gemeric-driven subvertical shortening in the Veporic Unit

to the Tatric–Fatric-driven horizontal N–S shortening (Jeřábek

et al. 1012). This process caused upright folding of the earlier

subhorizontal fabric and the development of crustal-scale

folds (Jeřábek et al. 2008a, 2012; Vojtko et al. 2016). This

indicates that the major exhumation displacement and cooling

from ~ 400 to 350 °C occurred before ~ 80 Ma (Figs. 6–8), most

probably in association with the formation of large-scale

cuspate antiforms (Vojtko et al. 2016). The upper part of the

basement, most likely due to southward underthrusting of the

Tatric–Fatric basement, were affected by an eastward unroo-

fing of the overlying rock sequences (Fig. 9). Beside this, the

schellite-molybdenite stockwork mineralization was emplaced

as fine disseminations and veinlets. Genetically, the minerali-

zation is confined to pre-existing subvertical E–W trending

cleavage and is related to intrusion of the subsurface Upper

Cretaceous Rochovce granite occurring in the close proximity

to the Lubeník thrust zone. It is dated by zircon U–Pb isochro-

nes revealing ages from ~ 76 to 82 Ma (Hraško et al. 1999;

Poller et al. 2001; Kohút et al. 2013) and post-dates the

Fig. 5. Present-day topography of the study area with remnants (coloured) of oldest planation surfaces. The colours of surfaces represent their

altitude. Black dashed lines represent the main morpholineaments related to the FT sampling sites. White dashed line delineates outer proximal

zone of the Poľana Stratovolcano. Contour intervals — 250 m (heavy contours), 50 m (fine contours).

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However, both groups indicate the Late Eocene to Oligocene

continual cooling up to present-day temperatures (Figs. 6–8).

The final stage of the Late Eocene erosion of the main Vepor

area can be related to the planation. This planation episode is

generally related to in situ chemical weathering and formation

of kaolin weathering crust in the Vepor area conditioned by

high global annual temperature and humidity (Fig. 8). There is

no direct evidence about this planation stage in the study area,

but we suppose that the basal formation (Skálnik Member of

the Číž Formation; Early/Late Oligocene boundary) of the

Southern Slovak Basin (e.g., Vass et al. 1989, 2007) likely

contains kaolin transported from the study area. Most pro-

bably, abrasion during slow Eocene transgression played

an important role in the final stage of formation of the first

Cenozoic planation surface. Nevertheless, in many places the

Oligocene to Lower Miocene sea transgressed onto the Veporic

and Gemeric crystalline basements again (Fig. 9; e.g., Soták

et al. 2005; Vass et al. 2007; Kováč et al. 2016; Vojtko et al.

2016).

A maximum burial of the Veporic Unit beneath this post-

nappe sedimentary sequence is considered to be in the Late

Oligocene and coincides with deposition of the Huty Fm.

(Soták et al. 2001) in the external part of the Central Western

Carpathians and also with deposition of the Číž Fm. in the

Southern Slovak Basin (Vass & Elečko 1982; Vass et al. 1989,

2007). In the Veporic Unit, the evidence for the Oligocene

burial is found in the Brezno Depression where at least 800 m

of the Upper Eocene to Oligocene strata is still preserved

(Planderová 1966; Pulec 1966; Sitár 1966). Small erosive

remnants have also been preserved in the vicinity of Tisovec

town (cf. Klinec 1976; Vojtko 2000, 2003; Plašienka & Soták

2001; Soták et al. 2005). Nevertheless, the Oligocene deposits

could not be thick enough because there are no indications of

AFT system reheating (Figs. 8 and 9; based on Vojtko et al.

2016 and data therein).

After the deposition of the Oligocene to Lower Miocene

sedimentary sequence, the prolonged erosional exhumation of

the Vepor area can be assumed. The early Miocene erosion in

a humid and warm climate nearly completely removed older

Cenozoic sediments and remnants of superficial nappes. Thus,

the Middle Miocene volcanism likely occurred here in a rela-

tively flat landscape forming the second Cenozoic palaeo-

surface (Figs. 8 and 9) favourable for supergene kaolinization.

Remnants of kaolin weathering crust indicate that the Veporic

granitoid basement must have experienced a period of tectonic

quiescence and was exposed to intensive chemical weathering

(Kraus 1989). Consequently, the so-called mid-mountain level

is probably the third Cenozoic palaeosurface, remnants of

which are widespread in the modern relief of the Western

Carpathians. Traditionally it is considered to be the Upper

Miocene surface, but it can integrate also remnants of older

palaeosurfaces (Lukniš 1964; Minár 2003) as in the eastern

part of the Veporic massif where inheritance of Eocene plana-

tion surfaces (cf. Vojtko et al. 2016) and it

s rejuvenation

during the early Miocene was documented

. In contrast, the

scattered AFT ages from ~ 37 Ma to 22 Ma from almost the

same altitude level beneath the mid-mountain level indicate

enhanced topography during AFT system closure and do not

support preservation of the Eocene planation surface in this

locality.

However, uncovering and integration of the early

Miocene planation surface into mid-mountain level cannot be

excluded.

Formation and erosion of the Neogene stratovolcanoes

Tectonic quiescence period in the Early Miocene was

replaced by lithospheric stretching, intramontane basins for-

mation, and volcanism in the Central and Internal Western

Carpathians. In the study area, the volcanic activity started in

the south-western part by Langhian stratovolcanic suite

(Konečný et al. 1998a,b) belonging to the Javorie Stratovolcano

and Langhian to Serravallian Šútovka Statovolcano (Šimon et

al. 2013). Later on, after the period of volcanic and tectonic

quiescence (lasted about 1 million years), the volcanic activity

was renewed and progressed towards the central part of the

Veporic domain (Figs. 8 and 9). The Poľana Stratovolcano

was formed during the Serravallian and its remnants are the

best preserved in the recent relief. Most probably, the youngest

stratovolcano was represented by the Vepor Stratovolcano

(late Serravallian; Konečný et al. 2015a,b), but on the contrary

it is nearly totally missing in the recent relief. The products of

the Serravallian Poľana and Vepor stratovolcanoes probably

completely covered and conserved the older planation surface.

The total thickness does not exceed more than 1.5 km, because

the AFT system was not reheated during the Neogene in the

study area.

After the volcanic activity ceased, erosional processes

removed almost the whole volcanic cone of the Vepor

Stratovolcano, significantly destroyed the Serravallian Javorie

stratovolcanic cone and slightly disrupted also the Poľana

Stratovolcano from the Late Miocene. Isostatically counter-

balanced uplift and erosion of the Veporic domain most pro-

bably quickly uncovered the Lower Miocene planation surface

on the Veporic crystalline basement from beneath the volcanic

structure (Figs. 8 and 9). After the intensive mechanical

weathering, the period of tectonic quiescence dominated by

chemical weathering occurred and caused the third phase of

planation, as well as formation of small kaolin crusts that

developed not only on the Veporic crystalline basement, but

also on the volcanic and carbonate rocks (Fig. 8; e.g., Lukniš

1964; Kraus 1989; Gaál 2008). The existence of this phase of

planation is supported by formation of planation surfaces on

the Serravallian volcaniclastics rocks in the periphery of the

Veporic area (e.g., Hájna Hora, Pokoradz, and Blh highlands;

Fig. 1), as well as

extensive remnants of planation surfaces

inside the older neovolcanic mountains in the west (Kremnické

vrchy, Ostrôžky). Superposition of the youngest Serravallian

lava flows on truncated older volcanosedimentary formations

points to an integration of older surfaces into the Late Miocene

mid-mountain level in altitude of ~ 1000 m a.s.l.

Exhumation

of older planation surfaces and integration of extensive depo-

sitional volcaniclastic plains enabled formation of a stepped

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, 2017, 68, 4, 285 – 302

flat relief that occupied majority of the region, excluding the

Poľana Stratovolcano. This type of planation surface was

called a tectoplain due to a complex long-term development in

prevailing extensional tectonic regime (Minár 2003; Minár et

al. 2011). During the Pontian to Pliocene (~ 6–3 Ma), the tec-

tonic quiescence period was replaced by exhumation which

caused that the kaolin weathering crust to be washed away and

deposited in the Poltár Fm. of the Lučenec Basin (Fig. 8).

Transportation and deposition of this weathered crust from the

crystalline basement was controlled by depositional environ-

ments. Basically, the quartzitic sand abundant in kaolin depo sits

derived from granitoids was transported to the alluvial–lacus-

trine environment where it was accumulated on northern

slopes of the basin. Clays were ultimately eroded and washed

out and deposited in the basin where they form a matrix of

gravels and sands (Poltár Fm.).

The present-day morphology of the Vepor Mountains,

characterised by sharply cut valleys to the crystalline base-

ment (Upper Ipeľ river, Rimavica river or Kamenistý potok

creek), points to an accelerated Pliocene and Quaternary uplift

(Figs. 8 and 9), which was probably controlled by erosion-

induced isostatic adjustment of the area after the removal of

a considerable amount of the volcanic complexes from this

region (especially the Vepor Stratovolcano).

Conclusions

In order to provide an insight into the morphotectonic evo-

lution of the external zone of the southern Veporic Unit,

an internal part of the Eo-Alpine (Cretaceous) orogenic wedge

of the Central Western Carpathians, a combination of geochro-

nology together with regional geological, sedimentological,

and geomorphological investigations was used. Based on this

research, several principal Alpine tectono-thermal stages of

burial and exhumation processes can be defined.

During the

Eo-Alpine Early Cretaceous nappe stacking, the

Veporic crystalline basement was buried beneath the

north-

ward overthrusting Gemeric Unit and overlying Jurassic

Meliata accretionary complexes. The crystalline basement

was buried at least to

the depth of ~ 15 km and suffered

a green schist facies metamorphic overprint. In this early con-

vergent stage, the Veporic Unit underwent an internal thicke-

ning and shortening which led to the formation

of a penetrative

subhorizontal mylonitic fabric.

After the Early Cretaceous burial, a major exhumation

phase started and most likely it was associated with two

distinct cooling mechanisms related to underthrusting of the

northerly Tatric–Fatric crust. The first exhumation and cooling

from ~ 400 to 350 ºC, as a result of initial underthrusting and

Veporic unroofing, took place before ~ 80 Ma.

Since the Late Cretaceous, a continual underthrusting led to

a passive en-block exhumation of the already finalised internal

structure of the Veporic Unit. I

n the western portion of the

Southern Veporic Unit, the Palaeocene slow cooling through

the temperature interval of ~ 320–200 °C was revealed, which

is approx. 10 Ma later than in the central part of this unit.

During the Early Eocene, a deceleration of exhumation rate in

temperature conditions from ~ 250 to 90 °C (temperature

interval between APAZ and ZPAZ medians) was computed,

which most likely reflects burial of the Southern Veporic crys-

talline basement beneath the thin Silicic superficial nappe sys-

tem and the Gosau Group strata.

The slow cooling continued up to the latest Eocene to

Oligocene when the basement rocks reached the temperature

zone of ~ 120–60 °C. This process can be related to subsequent

erosion of the overlying strata. In many places the Eocene ero-

sion was efficient enough, because the Oligocene to Lower

Miocene strata were deposited directly onto the Veporic base-

ment. At this time, the first Cenozoic planation surface with

kaolin weathering crust was probably formed in the Vepor

area. However, disturbed AFT ages indicate the existence of

pronounced relief in the study site. Palaeotopography was

related either to preservation of huge relics of the Drienok–

Vernár–Muráň cover nappes in the southern part of the

study area, or to the Late Eocene to Oligocene extension-

related deepening trend of the Central Carpathian Palaeogene

Basin.

The Early Miocene is characterised by a period of tectonic

quiescence. Slow erosion in a humid and warm climate led to

the formation of broad areas of subdued relief favourable for

supergene kaolinization. Most likely, the second Cenozoic

planation surface was formed in the Vepor domain in this

period. The tectonic quiescence period in the Early Miocene

was replaced by Middle Miocene volcanic activity. The volca-

nic products completely covered the early Miocene palaeo-

surface and were probably a crucial reason for its preservation

in many places.

After the cessation of volcanic activity, a tectonic quies-

cence period prevailed during the Late Miocene. At this time,

an isostatically compensated erosion most probably quickly

removed a lot of the Middle Miocene volcanic structures and

uncovered the second Cenozoic planation surface developed

on the Veporic crystalline basement. During the tectonic

quiescence period, this planation surface was remodelled and

significantly lowered by intensive mechanical and chemical

weathering and gradual denudation accompanied by forma-

tion of the third Cenozoic planation surface, as well as small

amount of kaolin crust not only on the Veporic crystalline

basement, but also on the flattened volcanic rocks. Thus the

mid-mountain level, planation surface preserved till now in

the central parts of the Vepor and surrounding mountains, has

a polygenetic character of a tectoplain. It is a result of a com-

plex history including repeated erosion, peneplanation, and

exhumation during a

mostly extensional tectonic regime.

Since the Pontian, erosional processes of the Veporic crys-

talline basement led to transportation and deposition of the

weathering crust into the alluvial to lacustrine environments

on the northern flanks of the Lučenec and Rimava basins

(Poltár Fm.). The final shaping of the Vepor Mountains has

been linked to a new accelerated tectonic activity since the

Pliocene.

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, 2017, 68, 4, 285 – 302

Acknowledgements:

The work was financially supported by

the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the con-

tracts Nos. APVV-0315-12, APVV-0625-11, APVV-0099-11,

APVV-15-0050, by the VEGA agency under contract Nos.

1/0193/13, 1/0650/15, and 1/0602/16 and by the by the

Research and Development Operational Programme funded

by the ERDF grant ITMS 26210120024 and ITMS

26240220086. The authors wish to express their gratitude to

Ján Madarás and an anonymous reviewer, as well as the hand-

ling editor (D. Plašienka) for their valuable suggestions which

helped improve the manuscript.

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