GeolCarp_Vol68_No3_193

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, JUNE 2017, 68, 3, 193 – 206

doi: 10.1515/geoca-2017-0015

www.geologicacarpathica.com

Discovery of the Badenian evaporites inside the

Carpathian Arc: implications for global

climate change and Paratethys salinity

KATALIN BÁLDI

, FELICITÁSZ VELLEDITS

, STJEPAN ĆORIĆ

, VIKTOR LEMBERKOVICS

KATALIN LŐRINCZ

and MIKHAIL SHEVELEV

Dept. of Physical and Historical Geology, Eötvös Loránd University,1117 Pázmány Péter st 1/c, Budapest, Hungary;

katalinbaldi@caesar.elte.hu

Miskolc University, Mineralogical-Geological Institute, Egyetemváros 3515 Miskolc, Hungary; foldfeli@uni-miskolc.hu

Geological Survey of Austria, Neulinggasse 38, A1030 Vienna, Austria; Stjepan.Coric@geologie.ac.at

RAG Hungary Ltd., Bocskai út 134-146, 1113 Budapest, Hungary; Viktor.Lemberkovics@rag-hungary.hu, Katalin.Lorincz@rag-hungary.hu

NIS a.d. Narodnog fronta 12, Novi Sad, Serbia; shevelev.mb@nis.eu

(Manuscript received July 26, 2016; accepted in revised form March 15, 2017)

Abstract: Massive evaporites were discovered in the Soltvadkert Trough (Great Plain, Hungary) correlating to the

Badenian Salinity Crisis (13.8 Ma, Middle Miocene) on the basis of nannoplankton and foraminifera biostratigraphy.

This new occurrence from Hungary previously thought to be devoid of evaporites is part of a growing body of evidence

of evaporitic basins inside the Carpathian Arc. We suggest the presence of evaporites perhaps in the entire Central

Paratethys during the salinity crisis. Different scenarios are suggested for what subsequently happened to these evaporites

to explain their presence or absence in the geological record. Where they are present, scenario A suggests that they were

preserved in subsiding, deep basins overlain by younger sediments that protected the evaporites from reworking, like in

the studied area. Where they are absent, scenario B suggests recycling. Scenario B explains how the supposedly brackish

Sarmatian could have been hyper/normal saline locally by providing a source of the excess salt from the reworking and

dissolving of BSC halite into seawater. These scenarios suggest a much larger amount of evaporites locked up in the

Central Paratethys during the salinity crisis then previously thought, probably contributing to the step-like nature of

cooling of the Mid Miocene Climate Transition, the coeval Mi3b.

Keywords: Miocene climate, evaporites, Paratethys, stratigraphy, Badenian, Sarmatian, palaeosalinity.

Introduction

The evidence presented here is the first account of Badenian

evaporites from inside the Carpathian Arc from Hungary with

a detailed stratigraphy, that correlates these layers to the

Badenian Salinity Crisis (BSC) of the Wielician. Evaporites

from Hungary have previously been explained by emphasis on

local salt tectonics (Palotai & Csontos 2012), or occurrences

only listed in data repositories (Jámbor et al. 1976;

Cserepes-Meszéna et al. 2000, 2004). It has generally been

believed that the Pannonian Basin was disconnected from the

evaporitic basins and thus devoid of evaporite formation,

(Balintoni & Petrescu 2002; Báldi 2006; Kováč et al. 2007;

Piller et al. 2007) although the existence of widespread thick

evaporitic successions deposited during the BSC in the Car-

pathian Foredeep (CFD) and the Transylvanian Basin (Fig. 1)

is well documented (Bąbel & Becker 2006; Peryt 2006;

Bukowski et al. 2007; Śliwiński et al. 2012; de Leeuw et al.

2013). Most of the historical salt mines in the region generally

belong to the arc of the Fore-Carpathian (Carpathian Fore-

deep, CFD) evapo ritic belt ranging across many countries

starting in the foreland, in upper Silesia in Poland and in the

Opava region of the Czech Republic in the NW Carpathians,

followed by the well-known Wieliczka-Bochnia area (Bicchi

et al. 2003; Gonera & Bukowski 2012) of Poland to continue

further into Ukraine and ending in the South Carpathians of

Romania (Peryt & Peryt 2009). Exceptions are in different

geological settings, the historical mining towns of the Transyl-

vanian Basin of Romania (e. g., Turda, Praid, Ocna Mureș etc)

and the simi larly famous Solotvyna in the Transcarpathian

Trough in Ukraine. Besides these well-known localities, there

is increa sing evidence of more evaporites in the Pannonian

Basin system of the Central Paratethys (CP). For example, it is

not so long ago, that it turned out, that there are evaporites of

the Transcarpathian Trough besides Solotvyna occurrence on

the surface, continuing NW into the East Slovak Basin tran-

sected by drilling (Franců et al. 1989; Kováč et al. 1995; Túnyi

et al. 2005; Bukowski et al. 2007) and correlated to the BSC

by magneto- or biostratigraphy (do not mix with older Car-

pathian evaporites of the Transcarpathian Trough). Not long

ago, a massive salt deposition, previously thought to be older,

was identified as BSC on the southern margin of the CP in the

Tuzla Basin in North Bosnia and Herzegovina (Ćorić et al.

2007). In the sediments overlaying the salt formation the spe-

cies Helico sphaera waltrans Theodoridis, 1984 is absent, and

therefore these layers can be placed into the uppermost NN5.

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This implies, that the salt deposits of Tuzla are indeed the

result of the BSC and this classic salt mine is adding to the

number of BSC occurrences all over the CP.

Recent new contributions have helped to refine the time-

frame of the BSC period (de Leeuw et al. 2010, 2013; Ho-

henegger & Wagreich 2011; Hohenegger et al. 2014) and its

relation to global climate and oceanographic changes (Bicchi et

al. 2003; Böhme 2003; Báldi 2006; de Leeuw et al. 2010;

Karami et al. 2011; Gebhardt & Roetzel 2012). In terms of

chronostratigraphy, the Badenian has traditionally been divi-

ded into three parts by Papp et al. (1978), the Lower Badenian

(Moravian), Middle Badenian (Wielician), and Upper Bade-

nian (Kosovian), but according to the latest contribution on

evaporite stratigraphy (Hohenegger et al. 2014), this division

does not coincide with traditional chronostratigraphic boun-

daries, where the Middle Badenian evaporites resulting from

the BSC would belong not to the Middle Badenian, but to the

Early Late Badenian. To avoid misunderstanding, in the present

work evaporites are referred to in the chronostratigraphic

sense as Wielician BSC deposits, or simply by the time inter-

val of the BSC. The time interval before the BSC, but already

in the Badenian is called the Moravian (pre-BSC period of the

Badenian), whereas units deposited after the BSC and Bade-

nian are Kosovian (post-BSC period of the Badenian).

The aims of the present work are threefold:

• To document the discovery in a hydrocarbon exploration

well in Hungary of the occurrence of massive layers of

evaporites from the Soltvadkert Trough (pre-BSC period

of Badenian) and describe its biostratigraphy and deposi-

tional environment.

• To draw attention to the increasing number of evaporite

occurrences in the CP correlated to the BSC, and to

explain their late recognition in the geological record.

• To attempt to understand better the spatial distribution of

BSC evaporites in the CP, including the new discoveries,

and discussing the hypothesis of recycling BSC evapo-

rites in a new and original perspective concerning salinity

conditions and global cooling.

Revival of hydrocarbon exploration with modern techniques

Our data come from an oil and gas exploration well transec-

ting a 50 m thick evaporitic sequence in the Soltvadkert

Trough on the Great Plain of Hungary. This area is located in

Fig. 1. Evaporite occurrences in the Central Parathetys region with classical evaporite localities in the Carpathian Foredeep and Transylvania.

The studied evaporite location of the Soltvadkert Trough is in legend A and the recently discovered evaporite locations mentioned in text

are in legend B–F. The figure was prepared by Golden Software Surfer-9. The map is modified after Horváth et al. (2004) available at

http://geophysics.elte.hu/atlas/geodin_atlas.htm and after Rögl (1998), Bąbel & Becker (2006), Peryt (2006), Bukowski et al. (2007) among

others. The thumbnail map of Europe with Hungary is modified https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_map_hungary.png.

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the Danube-Tisza Interfluve (Fig. 1) and has been the focus of

oil and gas exploration for a long time. In the last fifty years

numerous wells were drilled mainly on the structurally con-

trolled basement highs and significant oil and gas deposits

were found in Miocene and older reservoirs. Application of

high resolution and/or 3D seismic measurements was not

nece ssary as long as the focus of exploration was the robust,

4-way dip closures, which were mappable on a basic quality

2D grid.

The revival of interest in exploration in the area dates from

2010, with the introduction of 3D seismic surveys using the

most modern processing methods to detect smaller scale struc-

tural, stratigraphical or combined hydrocarbon traps. Based on

pilot studies and with the help of modern exploration tools,

a 3D seismic acquisition of 400 km

was carried out, revealing

the geological phenomenon described here.

Geology and basin history

The pre-Miocene basement with its Palaeozoic–Mesozoic

NE–SW nappes of alpine origin are not the concern of this

study. The sedimentary cycle of our interest started in the Kar-

patian (Early Miocene) according to Hámor (1998, 2001).

This area and its larger region belongs to a NE–SW strike slip

displacement zone, where small half grabens and/or pull-apart

basins were formed at different times and locations.

In the Paratethys at the end of the Karpatian a regression

took place due to compression and the studied area was elevat-

ed above sea level (Hámor 2001). The succeeding Badenian

stage is characterized by transgression enclosing a sedimentary

half-cycle. At the base of this half-cycle a conglomeratic lag is

found, as a result of the initial part of the marine transgression.

The transgression affected the sediment budget of the basin

by reducing terrigenous input from the land surrounding the

basin, making sediments gradually more and more enriched in

carbonates and clays. Thus, the sedimentary sequence generally

observable in this area started with a 10–30 m conglomerate

lag or breccia at the base of the sequence followed by

Lithothamnium-containing limestones of different facies.

These shallow-water sediments shifted rather quickly into

deep-water carbonate-rich marlstones and limey marls, as

a result of the subsidence and sea level rise (Császár et al.

1997; Hámor 1998, 2001). The southern peri phery of the

studied basin had rather steep and high banks, very well

observable on the base Badenian surface of Figure 2. Thus,

even the deep water deposits contained resedimented shallow

water fauna, biogene limestone fragments and fine sand and

silt layers, most likely mass transported from a higher, shal-

lower part of the basin (Fig. 2).

After the evaporitic event, deepening of the basin slowed

down and sedimentation continued in a shallower marine

environment without much change concerning lithology, in

which the only conspicuous change is the appearance of thin

volcanic tuff layers testifying to the onset of acidic to neutral

magmatic activity in the area. The entire Badenian sequence

can reach a thickness of 450–500 m.

Succeeding the Badenian half-cycle, an approximately

55–60 m thick Sarmatian layer was deposited above a non-

depositional surface or erosional unconformity. According

to the literature (Randazzo et al. 1999; Wiedl et al. 2012) in

the Sarmatian, a half-cycle of a transgressive sequence similar

to the Badenian should have been deposited in an environ-

ment of continuously decreasing salinity. However, in the

studied area such layers cannot be identified beyond doubt.

The probable reason for not finding typical Sarmatian depo sits

in the area is the intensifying volcanism producing large

amounts of tuffs and tuffites, which overwrote the original

sedimentation. Apart from the presence of volcanoclastic

sediments, also altered and reworked, the lithology is similar

to the Badenian dominated by marls and limey marls,

but formed in a shal lower environment, than in the previous

period.

Following the Late Middle Miocene Sarmatian in the Late

Miocene the Pannon Lake reigned leaving behind its very

thick (1.5–2.5 km) prograding shelf-margin sediments over

an erosional surface covering the Early to Late Miocene sedi-

ments (Magyar et al. 2013; Sztanó et al. 2013)

Results

An unpredictable pitfall of seismic interpretation

The freshly acquired 3D seismic data mentioned earlier re-

vealed at first glance a strong amplitude phenomenon at the

base of the Miocene sediments (Fig. 3 a, c). This seismic

pheno menon was a soft kick indicating a geophysical anomaly

caused by lower density rocks, or a media slowing down the

acoustic waves compared to its surroundings. This pheno-

menon was interpreted as an AVO (Amplitude Versus Offset)

class III anomaly, which is a favourite target for exploration in

the Neogene sediments of the Pannonian Basin. Based on the

geological model of the area, it was thought that the compact,

high-density, high acoustic velocity, limey marl would contain

a softer, high porosity, hopefully hydrocarbon-saturated sand-

stone layer, forming a stratigraphic trap, which would fully

explain the strong anomaly observed. The experts working in

the area knew of the sporadic occurrence of gypsum and

anhyd rite stringers in the offset wells, at a location shown on

Fig. 3 c, while photo of gypsum occurrence in Fig. 4. They

were well-aware of such evaporites having a similar effect on

the seismic data, but given the sporadicity of these thin occur-

rences had no reason to doubt the prospect.

However this anomaly, the potential prospect, turned out to

consist of evaporitic sediments of considerable thickness un-

known to this region, and conformable with the base and the

top with no sign of strong tectonic effect revealed by the seis-

mic data (Fig. 3 a, b). The studied anomaly on the 3D map can

be identified as a monocline structure (Fig. 2), and based on

the seismic section it is clear that the evaporite was indeed

deposited undisturbed in this small depression and neither

tectonized nor transported (Figs. 2, 3).

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The studied well transected an evaporite horizon between

2495 and 2445 m (Figs. 3, 5). The sequence starts with a mas-

sive halite accumulation (2460 –2495 m), interrupted by

an approximately 4 metres thick, acidic tuffite layer (2462–

2466 m). Overlying the halite are approximately 15 metres of

anhydrite-rich sediment, described mainly from cuttings.

The anhydrite occurrence is recognized from cuttings in the

clean halite sequence too, but the process of halite dissolution

in the water-based drilling mud makes it harder to reconstruct

original evaporite composition. Gypsum occurrences are known

not only from cuttings, but from cores taken in offset wells

(Fig. 4). The lithology of the evaporite-rich layers with the log

display is presented in Figure 5.

Previously known evaporite occurrences of uncertain age in

Hungary

The discovery in an oil exploration well of massive

eva porites at an unexpected location led us to look for

other such occurrences and we discovered information

from oil exploration wells Budajenő-2, Ráckeve-1 and

Valkó-1 in the Hungarian Geological and Geophysical

and Mining Data Repository. Find locations are shown in

Figure 1.

The Budajenő-2 well transected 40 m of fine clastics and

dacite tuff succession with anhydrite and gypsum from the

Kosovian/Wielician (post-BSC or BSC, 334.2–374.2 m).

It is believed that this was the first report of possible BSC

evaporites from the Pannonian basin. The overlying beds

(249.9–334.2 m) consist of alginitic siltstone with gypsum

and sulphur intercalations and was determined as Sarmatian

(Jámbor et al. 1976).

The Ráckeve-1 well is discussed from the tectonic point of

view in a publication, where the age of evaporites is given

as Badenian and/or Sarmatian? (Palotai & Csontos 2012).

According to the public database 196 m of halite and anhydrite

were reported (1827–2023 m) with intercalating clay in the

upper part. The underlying clay (2023–2086 m) also contained

nodules of anhydrites of Badenian age based on foraminifera

and pollen (Cserepes-Meszéna et al. 2004). In the Valkó-1

well a 10 m thick anhydrite layer (1196–1206 m) is followed

by 33 m of anhydrite with clay marl and marl intercalations.

Based on the poor foraminifera, its age is most probably

Kosovian/Wielician (Cserepes-Meszéna et al. 2000).

Fig. 2. Perspective 3D view of the evaporite accumulation on top of the reconstructed base Badenian palaeo-morphology. The discovered

evaporite deposit is positioned in the depocenter of the basin, close to the toe of the slope. The questionmark shows another possible location

for a yet undiscovered evaporite layer. TWT: Two ways travel time in seconds (s). The Golden Software Surfer-9 was used to prepare figure.

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Micropalaeontology of the Soltvadkert Trough oil exploration

well (Fig. 6)

A sample set of 25 nannoplankton sediment samples were

used to prepare smear slides, using standard methods of trea-

ting small amounts of sediments in distilled water with ultra-

sound for few seconds. These were analysed with a light

micro scope (Leica DMLP) under 1000 magnification (cross

and parallel nicols). The sample set of 18 foraminifera sam-

ples were processed by the standard technique, first disinte-

grating the samples with H-peroxide solution and then

wet-sieving them. All fractions were examined for forami-

nifera to avoid ignoring small- or large-sized species, although

the quantitative investigation of foraminifera under the light

microscope was conducted upon the 125μm – 2mm fraction.

The nannoplankton assemblages from the investigated bore-

hole were preserved well enough for determination, but many

of the samples analysed for foraminifera were barren. Very

few foraminifera were found in an extremely large amount of

sediment, though they had acceptable preservation. In spite of

these difficulties, micropalaeontological analyses were essen-

tial to our interpretation of this sequence concerning age and

palaeoenvironment which is summarized in Figure 6.

Biostratigraphy

Calcareous nannoplankton

The attribution to nannoplankton zone NN5 (Martini 1971)

is based on the occurrence of Sphenolithus heteromorphus and

the absence of Helicosphaera ampliaperta. The NN5/NN6

boundary is defined by the last occurrence of Sphenolithus

heteromorphus. Due to changed palaeo-ecological conditions

on the top of NN5, the appearance of S. heteromorphus

discontinues and this boundary cannot always be precisely de-

termined. Therefore this boundary is positioned on the basis of

the nannoplankton assemblage changes, as already observed

at other localities in the CP. Nannoplankton Zone NN5 is

gene rally dominated by small reticulofenestrids (Reticulo-

fenestra minuta and R. haqii), whereas high percentages of

Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilicus and Coccolithus pelagicus

characterize nannoplankton zone NN6.

Foraminifera

The lowermost samples containing foraminifera yielded

a rich planktonic assemblage, where in spite of bad preser-

vation Orbulina suturalis can be identified with very high

certainty and Globigerinopsis grilli with some doubt. This

makes the age determination from the upper-half of the Late

Moravian (Moravian: pre-BSC period of Badenian) to the end

of the Wielician (Wielician: BSC), where the species

O.suturalis has its last occurrence (LO) at 15.1 Ma (Cicha et

al. 1998; Hohenegger et al. 2014). Just below the evaporites

(2540 m) in addition to O. suturalis the species Globorotalia

bykovae appears with a last common occurrence (LCO) at the

end of the Wielician making the onset of evaporite formation

later than 15.1 Ma. The highest sample with some limited bio-

stratigraphic significance concerning foraminifera is from

above the evaporites (2382 m) lacking planktonic forms, but

a benthic Paratethyan species Quinqueloculina bogdanowitzi

was determined with some ambiguity. If the Central Para-

tethys age distribution of this benthic species (Cicha et al.

1998) is accepted for the here presented material, then a Koso-

vian age is indicated with high uncertainty.

Based on the calcareous nannoplankton and foraminifera

evidence combined, the evaporitic layers from the Soltvadkert

Fig. 3. Seismic sections and extension of halite. a — interpreted seis-

mic section across explored amplitude anomaly; b — the identified

salt accumulation which caused the phenomena (TVDSS:

repre-

senting TVD minus the elevation above mean sea level of the depth

reference point of the well);

c — extension of halite layer based

on amplitude mapping. The investigated well is well-1, while the

offset wells are well-2, 3, 4 previously known to transect gypsum and

anhydrite laminae. The

Golden Software Surfer-9 was used to prepare

figure.

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Trough discussed here can be correlated with the rather iso-

chronous evaporites of the classical sites of the Wielician de-

posited during the BSC, top of NN5 or lowermost NN6

(de Leeuw et al. 2010; Hohenegger et al. 2014).

Palaeoenvironment

The panel on the right is the environmental interpretation in

Figure 6. Generally foraminifera tests were present in low

numbers per unit of sediment. There are two possible reasons

for the scarcity of foraminifera. The foraminifera living at the

time of deposition could be rare due to stress (low standing

stock), or the foraminiferal tests may be diluted in sediments

with high sedimentation rates (160–230 m compacted sedi-

ment / MY). Fortunately samples with low numbers of fora-

minifera due to salinity stress can be used to reconstruct envi-

ronments, as in the case of a Messinian evaporite sequence

(Kouwenhoven et al. 2006).

Pre-evaporitic environment

Before the onset of evaporite formation the lowermost sam-

ples contain a rich planktonic foraminifera assemblage, with

O. suturalis and Globigerina praebulloides well-known indi-

cators of eutrophy in the surface water (Rossignol et al. 2011;

Sousa et al. 2014). Many authors emphasized other aspect of

the same assemblage in the same level interpreting it together

with stable isotope results as an indicator of global cooling

(Bicchi et al. 2003; de Leeuw et al. 2010; Gonera & Bukowski

2012; Bukowski et al. 2013). Cooling has possible implica-

tions in changes of nutrient budget, as the appearance of ag-

glutinated forms (e.g., Haplophragmoides sp.) in samples be-

low the evaporite horizon might be indicative of high nutrient

supply. The benthic assemblage has a few undoubtedly deep,

open marine bathyal elements like Siphonina reticulata or

Cibicides kullenbergi, previously called C. mundulus (Van

Morkhoven et al. 1986). The palaeo-water depth must have

reached 200–600m, or even deeper. Similar assemblages with

similar reconstructed depth range have been found in Hungary

(Báldi 2006; Báldi et al. 2002) and in the Mediterranean (Van

Hinsbergen et al. 2005; Kouwenhoven & Van der Zwaan

2006). Episodic dysoxy and/or anoxy resulting in high organic

matter content and microlaminated sediments can be assumed

Fig. 5. Lithological and log display of studied well. GR is natural

Gamma ray, RD is deep resistivity, BIT is size of drilling bit and CAL

is caliper logs. The large scale wash-out (cyan shading on BIT vs.

CAL track) clearly highlights the position of dissolved halite.

The Golden Software Surfer-9 was used to prepare figure.

Fig. 4. Gypsum/anhydrite stringer in black laminated marl, calca-

reous marl layer from Well-3 offset well (find location in Fig. 3 c).

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based on the presence of some dysoxy tolerant taxa (Bulimina

elongata, Pullenia bulloides).

Hypersalinity stress — the evaporitic event of the BSC

(Badenian Salinity Crises)

Below and above the evaporite horizon (foraminifera

samples from 2541 m and 2377 m) salinity stress tolerant

taxa occur. Based on the observed abnormal growth

of A. beccarii tepida, salinity stress is more likely to

be hypersaline than hyposaline (Stouff et al. 1999).

The Elphidiids and Miliolids are also present in low num-

bers: these are salinity stress-resistant taxa. As the stressful

environment prevents the occurrence of depth-indicating

normal marine deep taxa, reconstructing water depth is not

possible.

Fig. 6. Lithology, biostratigraphy and palaeo-environmental reconstruction of the Soltvadkert Trough evaporite occurrence. The evaporite

horizon is highlighted in yellow. Palaeo-environment reconstructions are based on the percentage of the following salinity stress tolerant

benthic foraminifera species in the total assemblage: Ammonia beccarii tepida, Elphidium crispum, Elphidium granosum, Elphidium spp,

Triloculina sp, Spiroloculina sp, Quinqeloculina cf bogdanowicz, Miliolid spp, Adelosina schreibersi (max. 80 %); deep species: Siphonina

reticulata and Cibicides kullenbergi (max. 25 %); oxyphilic: Cibicides lobatulus, Heterolepa dutemplei, Lenticulina sp (max. 25 %);

dysoxic or inbenthic: Bulimina elongata, Pullenia bulloides (max. 25 %).

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Post-evaporitic environment

Common occurrences of Braarudosphaera bigelowii were

observed on the top of the investigated boreholes, within NN6.

High percentages of this species point to decreasing salinity,

usually caused by fresh water inflow.

Above the evaporite horizon there are not many samples

available with foraminifera content. However, based on the

absence of planktonic forms and the few benthic specimens

found, it was likely to be shallower. On the other hand, the

presence of Cassidulina oblonga might suggest greater water

depth (Singh & Gupta 2004), while shallow forms are easily

transportable.

Similarities of CFD evaporites and the newly discovered

Soltvadkert Trough occurrence

Correlation of Badenian evaporites

Dating the Badenian evaporites from classical sites are in

the forefront of Paratethys research, due to developments in

determining absolute age, astronomical tuning or magneto-

stratigraphy (Peryt 2006; Bukowski et al. 2010; de Leeuw et

al. 2010; Śliwiński et al. 2012; Hohenegger et al. 2014).

Thinking of BSC evaporites as one isochronous evaporitic

event seems a plausible explanation for many of the observed

phenomena. Hohenegger et al. (2014) suggest that the BSC is

restricted to the uppermost NN5 and lowermost NN6. In North

Bosnia salt deposits were dated as uppermost NN5 (Ćorić et

al. 2007) making them BSC evaporites. Based on calcareous

nannoplankton and foraminifera the age of the thick evapo-

rites discussed here is also top of NN5 or lowermost NN6,

making this occurrence the first well-documented BSC evapo-

rites discovered in Hungary.

Depositional environments of evaporites

There are many similarities between the classical evaporites

of the Carpathian Foredeep and the Hungarian occurrence

presented here. At both localities the evaporitic succession

starts generally with halite and is succeeded by sulphates ex-

tending the basin centre to the margins of the evaporitic basin.

In this occurrence halite formation also predates sulphate

formation (Fig. 5), where sulphates in the form of anhydrites

occur in nearby wells on the basin margin (Peryt 2006;

Bukowski et al. 2007).

There is a general agreement that, according to the deep wa-

ter model, the prerequisite of evaporite formation is an over-

saturated and highly-dense brine. Such brines have much

higher density than normal saline water, and thus are always

found in the deepest part of the basin, with water of lower

salinity layered above. In spite of the low number of forami-

nifera found due to stress and dilution in sediment, it provides

crucial evidence on the environmental constraints before and

after the evaporite formation in the Soltvadkert Trough (Fig. 6).

Based on the foraminiferal assemblage the evaporitic event

was preceded by a rather deep normal marine environment

thought to be shelf break or upperslope giving a depth estimate

of about 400 m or deeper based on Late Miocene Mediterra-

nean analogues (Van Hinsbergen et al. 2005; Kouwenhoven &

Van der Zwaan 2006). The pre- evaporitic sediments also con-

tain high numbers of planktonic foraminifera, indicating

a pelagic, open marine environment. The dominance of

Globigerina bulloides in layers below the evaporites in

Wieliczka (CFD, Poland) (Gonera 2014) and in the lowermost

samples preceding the evaporite deposition in the presented

sequence from Hungary is remarkable. The species G. bulloides

is a typical upwelling species pointing to high surface water

productivity in our case (Sousa et al. 2014). The benthic

species Siphonina reticulata and deep- living Cibicides species

like Cibicides kullenbergi, a member of the C. kullenbergi-

mundulus complex with a depth range deeper then 500–600 m

(Van Morkhoven et al. 1986; Van Hinsbergen et al. 2005;

Kouwenhoven & Van der Zwaan 2006) all indicate upper

bathyal depth. Based on the same two species of

S. reticulata and C. kullenbergi and on a high plankton/ benthos

ratio similar water depths were suggested in Hungary in Báldi

et al. (2002) and Báldi (2006). Concerning reconstruction of

the dissolved oxygen levels of bottom water during deposi-

tion, the dysoxy indicators among the benthic foraminifera

species such as Bulimina elongata described here and also in

the CFD (Peryt 2013) strongly suggest enhanced vertical

strati fication coupled with high-productivity surface water

and increased organic flux to the bottom. This is supported by

the seismic section and palaeogeographical reconstruction

showing the evaporites in the deepest depression (Figs. 2, 3).

Occasional bottom water anoxy is further corroborated by the

formation of microlaminites common around the evaporitic

horizon in the investigated well. These similarities of classical

CFD and Pannonian Basin evaporites possibly point to the

existence of continuous connections between these evaporitic

basins during deposition in the entire CP.

Explanation of the late recognition of evaporites in the

Pannonian Basin

The rather late recognition of BSC evaporites in Hungary is

due to many factors:

• all our information on the local Miocene geology of the

Great Plain is based on seismic data and mostly just cuttings,

as in the present work.

• the evaporitic sequence presented here is covered by thou-

sands of metres of younger sediments like all the Middle

Miocene of the Great Plain.

• there is the possibility that 10–15 metres of halite beds

would be overlooked on old, low resolution 2D seismic sec-

tions, as it is below the resolution of what is now an out-

dated method.

• most oil exploration wells in the area were drilled into tec-

tonic highs, and not into structures like the Soltvadkert

Trough discussed here.

• as halite is perfectly soluble in the water-based drilling

fluids generally used, there is a high possibility of a few

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metres of evaporites being missed in the old, mainly hydro-

carbon exploration wells, in the absence of modern mud and

wireline logging control.

• problems arising with biostratigraphic methods are two-

fold:

◦ poor preservation of the highly consolidated samples

from great depths makes the identification of biostrati-

graphic markers difficult, thus delaying the recognition of

these evaporites.

◦ the high sedimentation rates in the investigated area

during the Middle and Late Miocene diluted the strati-

graphic marker fossils making the recognition of evapo-

rites difficult. In the absence of good stratigraphic control

the evaporitic layers found in Hungary were thought to be

younger or older then fully-marine Badenian.

Discussion

A novel approach to understanding evaporites in the

geological record of the CP (Fig.7)

The discovery of this new, massive evaporite occurrence

and the growing evidence of more occurrences in proximity

(Jámbor et al. 1976; Cserepes-Meszéna et al. 2000, 2004;

Palotai & Csontos 2012) and in the CP (Túnyi et al. 2005;

Bukowski et al. 2007; Ćorić et al. 2007) has inspired a new

way of thinking of evaporites in the geological

record. Though the geogra phical extent (<10 km

)

of the evaporites discussed here is small (Fig. 3 c),

we can assume that these occurrences are rem-

nants of a widespread evaporitic layer formed

during the short period of the BSC (0.2– 0.6 Ma,

de Leeuw et al. 2010). Based on our observations

the Soltvadkert salt basin was formed in a deep,

rapidly sinking basin with high sedimentation

rates, where anoxia deve loped due to the oversa-

turated heavy hypersaline brine accu mulating at

the bottom of the basin. This sort of depositional

environment is believed not to be unique and

restricted only to the Soltvadkert Trough, but

possibly in all deep salt basins in the CP reaching

a certain water depth evaporites were formed

during the BSC.

In the Pannonian Basin and generally in the CP

there are different fates awaiting any evaporites

formed during the BSC that determine their

future presence or absence in the geological

record later. These are the two scenarios presen ted

here (Fig. 7).

In scenario A the evaporites are preserved in

the geological record, as in the historical eva-

porite sites of the CFD, and the more recent

East Slovakian Basin occurrence, or the here

presented Pannonian Basin or the Transylvanian

Basin. These are just remnants of a once wide-

spread evapo ritic layer formed during the BSC in all deep

basins of the entire CP. In this scenario evaporites were pre-

served in actively subsiding basins overlain by younger sedi-

ments that protected the evaporites from being recycled. Some

scenario A evaporite occurrences, though present in the geo-

logical record, appear to have been overlooked, as discussed

above.

In scenario B evaporites are absent from the geological

record, because salt deposited during the BSC is presumed to

be reworked and dissolved in most of the CP area later during

the Badenian and Sarmatian. It is easy to imagine the rewor-

king of evaporites so that they do not leave much evidence

behind in the geological record, as halite dissolves in water,

while sulphates are soft and grind to nothing in a shallow

water high energy environment. Recycling of evaporites is

probably a more important process then thought before as it

has been recorded from the East Slovakian Basin (Bukowski

et al. 2007), and from the Carpathian Foredeep (Kolasa &

Slaczka 1985; Cendón et al. 2004; Głuszyński & Aleksan-

drowski 2016) repeatedly. However, recognizing any original

sedimentary structures of resedimentation might be difficult as

evaporites are often tectonized also in Hungary (Palotai &

Csontos 2012) or in the Transylvanian Basin where salt dia-

pirism is typical of the region (Krézsek & Filipescu 2005;

Krézsek & Bally 2006).

The traditionally accepted view of Sarmatian salinity

emphasizes its transitional in-between nature as brackish,

Fig. 7. The fate of the BSC evaporites inside the Carpathian Arcs. According to

scenario A evaporites were preserved in deep basins with high sedimentation rates,

while in scenario B evaporites were recycled making the Late Badenian or

Sarmatian Sea hyper- or normal saline.

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following the fully-marine Badenian and preceding the very

low-salinity Pannonian. This has been challenged by some

authors, who call Sarmatian brackishness a mere “myth” (Piller

& Harzhauser 2005). Their doubt was based on isotope evi-

dence and the presence of hypersaline species along with the

commonly observed phenomena of heavy calcification that

cannot happen in a brackish environment, all of which point to

a normal marine or even hypersaline environment in the Sar-

matian. The carbonate-factory nature of the Sarmatian was

established based on oolites and heavily calcified molluscs

(Harzhauser & Kowalke 2002; Piller & Harzhauser 2005).

Other authors confirmed this idea by reconstructing hyper- or

normal saline conditions in the Sarmatian based on palaeo-

ecologic evidence of fossil assemblages (Cornée et al. 2009;

Tóth et al. 2010; Bitner et al. 2014; Harzhauser et al. 2014).

Our suggested scenario B sheds new light on this “myth” of

the brackish Sarmatian Sea by explaining the origin of salt in

a hyper- or normal saline Sarmatian (Harzhauser & Kowalke

2002; Piller & Harzhauser 2005; Cornée et al. 2009; Tóth et al.

2010; Bitner et al. 2014; Harzhauser et al. 2014) as being recy-

cled BSC halite dissolved into the sea water. This scenario

makes feasible the idea of a Sarmatian Sea of variable salinity

in both space and time from brackish to hypersaline. Wide-

spread Sarmatian oolites are well known in Hungary (e.g.,

Tinnye Formation), and particularly NW from the Soltvadkert

location in the Zsámbék Basin, where a hypersaline lagoon

was described as part of the brackish Sarmatian Sea in

a highly-unlikely oceanographic setting. Hypersalinity was

explained by renewed connections to the Mediterranean

(Cornée et al. 2009; Tóth et al. 2010). Ever since, more and

more evidence has accumulated for normal salinity or hyper-

salinity of the Sarmatian (Bitner et al. 2014; Harzhauser et al.

2014) but without a plausible climate-related driving force of

evaporation such as aridity or lowered fresh water influx. Not-

withstanding the role of changing seaways in the Paratethys,

and a conceivable Kosovian Mediterranean connection (Bartol

et al. 2014) after the BSC but still in the Badenian, it is sug-

gested that these oolites and hypersaline shallow-water

Sarmatian facies in the entire CP developed locally due to

recycling of BSC evaporites.

There is a recent analogue for the recycling of the BSC

evaporites and for deep-basin evaporite formation during the

BSC — the deep, hypersaline evaporitic basins in the Eastern

Mediterranean (the Bannock and Tyro basins) where Messinian

(Late Miocene) salt layers are currently dissolving into the

present-day sea (Camerlenghi 1990; De Lange et al. 1990).

The analogy is far from perfect as recycling in the Sarmatian

probably happened more generally in shallow environments as

the widespread oolite shoals indicate. On the other hand these

deep Mediterranean basins with strong density stratification,

where bottom-water brines can become supersaturated and

evaporites can precipitate are good analogues for the BSC

eva porite occurrence presented here. In these Mediterranean

basins microlaminites are formed under anoxic conditions,

similar to the studied BSC sequence from the Soltvadkert

Trough.

Furthermore, there is evidence supporting resedimentation

of BSC evaporites from the field of micropalaeontology.

Sarmatian sediments regularly contain high percentages of

reworked calcareous nannofossils from the Badenian (with

Helicosphaera waltrans and Sphenolithus heteromorphus)

indicating strong erosion and redeposition of the lower and

middle Badenian sediments. Changes in the percentages of the

reworked calcareous nannoplankton were successfully used

for the reconstruction of the palaeoenvironment during the

Karpathian and Badenian in the Central Paratethys (Ćorić &

Rögl 2004). In many cases this reworking hinders the use of

nannoplankton for the stratigraphical subdivision of the

Sarmatian, but can serve as additional evidence for dissolution

of Badenian evaporites.

The BSC evaporite formation took place not only in deep

water settings, like the Soltvadkert Trough presented here, but

there is a considerable amount of literature claiming that BSC

depositional environments were shallow (Ghergari et al. 1991;

Bąbel 2004, 2012; Bąbel & Becker 2006). Perhaps, some

shallow water evaporites can avoid resedimentation depen-

ding on the particular geohistory of the salt basin. Models also

exist of combining deep and shallow water formation of

evapo rites for the same basin, like in the Transylvanian Basin

(Krézsek et al. 2010). Solving this puzzle is out of scope for

the work presented here.

The reworking evaporite scenario B might have implica-

tions concerning the global cooling that takes place in the

Middle Miocene. This climate transition (14.2 to 13.9 Ma)

with its stepwise cooling and enhanced glaciation is not fully

understood in many aspects (Holbourn et al. 2005, 2013;

DeConto et al. 2008; Knorr & Lohmann 2014). According to

scenario B, the BSC evaporite formation was not limited to the

well known classical localities, but was much more wide-

spread, perhaps in the entire deep water CP to be recycled later

in the Badenian or Sarmatian. Taking into account possible

coeval evaporites from the Middle East (Al-Husseini et al.

2010; Abu Seif 2014), the amount of locked-up salts during

the BSC might have been underestimated. The correlation of

the global cooling event Mi3b corresponding to the base of the

Serrava lian (Hilgen et al. 2012) with the BSC is rather well

established (Karami et al. 2011; Gebhardt & Roetzel 2012;

Peryt 2013; Hohenegger et al. 2014 among others) although

accor ding to many authors there was a cooling period prece-

ding the evaporite deposition (Bicchi et al. 2003; Bukowski et

al. 2010; de Leeuw et al. 2010; Peryt & Gedl 2010; Gonera

2013). This cooling, following an extreme climate optimum,

did not change the hydrological budget keeping evaporation

excee ding precipitation leading to anti-estuarine circulation

(Báldi 2006; de Leeuw et al. 2010), thus making possible the

formation of evaporites. The exact nature of the trigger to start

BSC formation is not fully reconstructed, neither is the amount

of evaporite formed during the BSC known. Thus, mass

balance calculations concerning the extraction of NaCl from

the World Ocean during BSC could be sensitive to the amount

of evaporite precipitated and locked up in the Paratethys by

reducing global salinity. A negative shift in salinity, even if it

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is just a slight change, might increase ice formation and global

cooling by its positive albedo feedback. Hence, it seems

worthwile to reconsider the role of the Paratethys during the

BSC as a factor influencing global climate, as the amount

of locked up evaporites may have been underestimated.

The occasional modelling study taking into account the

Paratethys (Karami et al. 2011), has a different focus, but

perhaps future research can be justified to take into account

the larger quantity of evaporites based on the presented work.

Conclusion

The newly-discovered massive evaporites from the Soltvad-

kert Trough in Hungary, 50 metres thick, are described and

documented in the present work. They can be correlated with

the classical evaporite occurrences of Wielician age formed

during the salinity crises in the Badenian of the CFD based on

calcareous nannoplankton and foraminifera biostratigraphy.

The evaporites belong to the top of NN5 lowermost NN6, and

the species O. suturalis has LO 15.1 Ma below the evaporitic

horizon (Cicha et al. 1998; Hohenegger et al. 2014). Based on

this evidence the studied evaporitic layers can be correlated to

the classical CFD or Transylvanian deposits making its age

undeniably Wielician.

Palaeoenvironmental reconstructions of the Soltvadkert

Trough prior to evaporite formation, based on foraminifera,

suggest deep water setting with highly stratified water column,

oversaturated brine at the bottom, while surface water turned

eutrophic. This high organic matter flux to the sea floor led to

dysoxy at the bottom progressing into total anoxy during

evaporite formation, and resulting in the formation of micro-

laminites in clay. This salt basin can be characterized by high

sedimentation rates, also a prerequisite of preserving these

evaporites.

The Soltvadkert Trough evaporites appearantly just one of

many occurrences recently found in the CP, for example, NE

from our locality in the East Slovakian Basin (Túnyi et al.

2005; Bukowski et al. 2007) or to the south, the Tuzla Basin

(Ćorić et al. 2007), are all parts of the Pannonian Basin System.

Also from Hungary there are some additional boreholes

transecting evaporites NW of the study area in the Zsámbék

Basin and nearby according to the data repository (Jámbor et

al. 1976; Cserepes-Meszéna et al. 2000, 2004) and publi-

cations (Cornée et al. 2009; Tóth et al. 2010; Palotai & Csontos

2012).

Inspired by these new evaporite occurrences, different sce-

narios were developed to explain the presence or absence of

evaporites in the geological record. It is presumed that during

the salinity crises evaporites were forming in a much larger

area than thought before, in the entire Central Paratethys.

Concerning the further fate of the evaporite layer, two scena-

rios were developed:

• Scenario A: the presence of evaporites in the geological

record is due to deposition in deep, rapidly sinking basins

with high sedimentation rates, where the resedimenta-

tion-prone evaporites could remain under the protecting

layer of covering sediments as in the Soltvadkert Trough

(Figs. 2, 3). These are the salt basins where evaporites were

preserved as the remnants of a widespread evapo ritic layer

formed during the sali nity crisis.

• Scenario B: the evaporites deposited during the BSC were

exposed later in the Badenian or Sarmatian to be recycled

into the Sarmatian Sea, similarily to present day analogues

(Camerlenghi 1990; De Lange et al. 1990). Salts and sul-

phates are both known to be easily recycled as observed at

several places in the Paratethys (Kolasa & Slaczka 1985;

Cendón et al. 2004; Bukowski et al. 2007; Głuszyński &

Aleksandrowski 2016).

The new approach explaining the presence or absence of

evaporites in the geological record inside the Carpathians

sheds light on two scientific problems:

• Scenario B gives a hypothetical explanation for the recorded

occurrence of Sarmatian hyper- or normal sali nity by

providing the source of salts from recycling the BSC evapo-

rite. There has never been convincing evidence shown for

excess evaporation due to aridity or reduced freshwater

influx locally to support Sarmatian non-brackish salinity,

while the confirming palaeonto

gical and geological

evidence is abundant (Harzhauser & Kowalke 2002;

Piller & Harzhauser 2005; Cornée et al. 2009; Tóth et al.

2010; Bitner et al. 2014). Introducing the idea of reworking

BSC salts, a Sarmatian Sea of variable salinity in both space

and time from brackish to hyper saline becomes more

conceivable. This way scenario B raises further

doubts about the unified brackish nature of the Sarmatian

(Piller & Harzhauser 2005; Tóth et al. 2010; Bitner et al.

2014).

• The scenarios presented here imply a much larger amount of

evaporites being locked up in the Paratethys during the

half-million years of the BSC, than was previously supposed.

This draws attention to the relationship of the base Serra-

valian Mi3b global cooling event to the evaporite formation

in the Badenian Paratethys. If we suppose, that basins

were isolated by eustatic sealevel drop and ignore for

the moment the possible tectonic causes, then the causality

in the correlation of the two events might be reconsidered.

According to the here presented scenarios BSC evaporites

formed in a much larger area and quantity then previously

supposed, and perhaps could have been of a magnitude

to shift global salinity and enhance ice formation in

the polar regions reversing the causality. Hopefully future

research on modelling the mass balance of salts in the

World Ocean will help us to understand better the relation-

ship between the BSC event and the Miocene climate

transition.

Acknowledgements: We are grateful for RAG Kiha Ltd. for

supporting this publication reporting the evaporite occurrence

in the Soltvadkert Trough of the Hungarian Plain. We are

grateful to William Andrew Parker for language correction of

the manuscript.

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, 2017, 68, 3, 193 – 206

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