GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA
, APRIL 2017, 68, 2, 165 – 174
doi: 10.1515/geoca-2017-0013
www.geologicacarpathica.com
Mapping of tecto-lineaments and their influence on
sedimentological processes in a GIS environment:
a case study of the Iberian trough, Spain
ANTONIO HERREROHERNÁNDEZ
1
, FRANCISCO JAVIER LÓPEZMORO
2
, MARÍA ELENA
VALLEFEIJÓO
3
, FERNANDO GÓMEZFERNÁNDEZ
1,3
and JOSÉ RAMÓN RODRÍGUEZPÉREZ
3
1
Research Group of Geological Engineering and Materials (INGEOMAT), Department of Mining Technology, Topography and Structures,
Faculty of Mining Engineering, University of Leon, Campus of Vegazana, s/n, 24071 León, Spain; aherh@unileon.es
2
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of Salamanca, C/ Plaza de Los Caídos s/n, 37008 Salamanca, Spain; fjlopez@usal.es
3
Department of Mining Technology, Topography and Structures, Faculty of Mining Engineering, University of Leon, Campus of Vegazana, s/n,
24071 León, Spain; miryam.valle@unileon.es, f.gomez@unileon.es, jr.rodriguez@unileon.es
(Manuscript received January 7, 2016; accepted in revised form November 30, 2016)
Abstract: The subsurface sedimentary succession of the Iberian Trough, Spain was examined using geophysical
t echniques (analogue seismic profiles) and inverse distance weighted (IDW) interpolation algorithm implemented in
a gvGIS open source software. The results showed that the Late Cretaceous succession is divided into two depositional
sequences: DS1 (Late Albian–Middle Turonian) and DS2 (Late Turonian–Campanian). From the analogical seismic
sections, digital data and quantitative isopach maps for DS1 and DS2 were obtained. The new isopach maps obtained
for the DS1 sequence showed that the deeper sectors of the basin were located to the northeast and the proximal ones to
the southwest. The palaeoshoreline was inferred to be situated in the N 150 direction. Across and parallel to this direction
several blocks were delimited by faults, with a direction between 30 N and N 65. The thickness of the sediments in these
blocks varied in direction NW–SE, with subsidence and depocentres in hangingwall and uplift in the footwall. These
variations may have been related to active synsedimentary faults (e.g., Boñar and Yugueros Faults). In the DS2 sequence,
a lineament separated the smaller thicknesses to the southwest from the larger thicknesses (up to 1400 m) to the northeast.
This lineament had an N170 orientation and it indicated the position of the palaeoshoreline. In the isopach map for DS2
there were two groups of lineaments. The first showed a block structure that was limited by N100–120, they were
foundering toward the S and had large thicknesses (depocentres), and rose towards the N, where there were smaller
thicknesses. The second group of lineaments had a N 50–65 direction and, in this case, they had a similar interpretation
as the one in DS1. The maps obtained are of great help for geologists and permit better understanding of the geological
setting and stratigraphic succession of the Late Cretaceous of the Iberian Trough.
Keywords: Iberian Trough, Late Cretaceous, seismic, Isopach maps, GIS, IDW.
Introduction
The understanding of the depositional context and reconstruc
tion of sedimentary basins has become a major topic in earth
sciences and is now a necessary step for modelling the data in
subsoil. In the study area, the surface data were generally
scattered, and it was necessary to collect the data from the sub
soil. Geophysical methods, mainly seismic and well logging
are routinely used in studies of subsurface analysis (see
Galloway 1989; HerreroHernández et al. 2004; Catuneanu et
al. 2009, 2011). Less frequently, a combination of these
methods of subsoil analysis along with GIS (Geographical
Information System) techniques and geostatistical techniques
are employed (see ChengShin et al. 2013; Jurecka et al.
2016). However, they are usually applied in the cartographic
mapping of the earth’s surface and they provide this data in
a relatively quick and nonexpensive manner.
In the literature for geosciences there is an abundance of
works that apply digital elevation models (DEM) and remote
sensing images in order to obtain data about the geological and
morphotectonic structure (see Chorowicz et al. 1998, 1999;
Collet et al. 2000; Elmahdy & Mohamed 2016a). DEMs are
used (i) to calculate the dip and strike of the strata (Chorowicz
et al. 1991), (ii) to define the geometry of the fault plane
(Koike et al. 1998; Jordan et al. 2005), (iii) to define morpho
tectonic parameters, such as the slope of the terrain, curvature
of the profile, etc., (Burbank & Anderson 2001; Keller &
Pinter 2002; Nappi et al. 2009; Elmahdy et al. 2012). The rela
tionship between the morphology of the terrain and the tec
tonic deformation with geophysical data (seismic) has been
analysed in some works by using GIS techniques (e.g., Jordan
et al. 2005; Nappi et al. 2009).
The classical approach to the integration of digital methods
with geomorphology and tectonics includes the identification
of linear faults, definition of patterns of the drainage network,
identification of linear valley crests and linear slope breaks,
among other morphological expressions. Interpolation methods
are widely used for groundwater contour maps, but can also be
used to attribute 2D information, and to create representations
such as maps that show the concentration of contaminants.
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, 2017, 68, 2, 165 – 174
However, the application of using geostatistics and GIS
technologies in order to study the geology of the subsoil is
relatively novel, and its development is still incipient in many
fields. The application of GIS technologies for the analysis of
the potential for hydrocarbons is usually done with a large
dataset, and map layers such as aerial photos or satellite imagery
(raster data) and hydrology, elevation contours, and topo
graphic landmarks (vector data) (e.g., Jordan et al. 2005;
Nappi et al. 2009).
In this paper, the powerful tools of a GIS for the analysis of
the spatial and temporal (3D4D) variation, which are fre
quently used in the exploitation of hydrocarbons, were used to
keep track of the spatial and temporal variations of the isopach
maps of the lithoseismic units. This was a difficult task for the
study area that was used in this research. First, the Mesozoic
sediments, which were the object of this work appeared on the
surface in a narrow band below 5 km and were around
60–80 km long, and had an EastWest orientation and were
located on the north side of the study area. Second, the geolo
gical maps in the region (see GómezFernández et al. 2003)
allowed for the identification of tectonostructural patterns
that had an apparent continuity in the basement. Third, the ini
tial data were printed in seismic sections on paper, so digital
data was not obtained. Therefore the data could not be used for
other basic methods such as the analysis of the subsoil to
model reservoirs, e.g., inverse geostatistical methods (e.g.,
GrijalbaCuenca et al. 2000), which uses the variability in any
petrophysical parameter such as porosity, permeability, etc.
The main objective of this study is to map tectolineaments
crosscutting the late Cretaceous Iberian Trough and investi
gate their influence on the sedimentological process.
Study area
The area under investigation is located in the province of
Leon, Spain. It stretches between latitude 4760000(N) and
4680000(S), and longitude 260.000(W) and 390.000(E) (coor
dinates ETRS89/UTMzone30N). In the Iberian Peninsula,
from the Jurassic to Late Cretaceous period, an extensional
sedimentary basin (Iberian Trough) was created. The study
area is located in the western margin of a Mesozoic exten
sional sedimentary basin (Iberian Trough), namely in the
socalled Leonese Area. The crystalline basement consists of
Palaeozoic units and belongs to the Variscan Domains of the
Cantabrian Mountains (Cantabrian Zone and West Asturian
Leonese Zone) (Fig. 1).
According to the lithostratigraphic successions (Fig. 2), the
sediment thickness is between 150 and 650 m and transgres
sion and regression stages are inferred by changes of fluvial to
tidal flat and shallow marine deposits.
Several previous studies (e.g., Gómez de Llarena 1934; Ciry
1939; Evers 1967; van Ameron 1965; Jonker 1972;
GómezFernández et al. 2003; HerreroHernández et al. 2010,
2013) have been applied to describe the Late Cretaceous
successions in the study area. The general stratigraphic
organization is composed of two lithostratigraphic units: the
Voznuevo Member and the Boñar Formation (Fig. 1). Between
these units, a lateral shift of lithology from detritalcarbonate
materials (east) to exclusively detrital materials (west) took
place.
The Voznuevo Member essentially consists of white, red
dish and yellow ferruginous sandstones. Its thickness ranges
from 350 m in the west to 150 m in the middle part of the study
area. The Voznuevo Member is mainly characterized by
deposits derived from different fluvial systems that drained
this part of the Iberian Massif.
The Boñar Formation is mainly formed of carbonate rocks
(limestones and dolomites) intercalated with shales and marl
stones with thickness of approximately 300 m. This succes
sion indicates that the formation was deposited in
terrigenouscarbonated mixed platforms with shallow subtidal
and intertidal areas on open shelf depositional environments
(Gómez Fernández et al. 2003; HerreroHernández &
GómezFernández 2012; SuárezGonzález et al. 2016). The
palaeogeography of the study area has not been investigated in
details due to the limitations of outcrops. Thus, it is important
to include subsoil analysis in order to draw an image of the
palaeogeography and palaeotectonics of the sedimentary
basin.
Limited numbers of studies (e.g., HerreroHernandez et al.
2004, 2010, 2013) have been done using subsoil analysis to
build a regional stratigraphic succession in terms of four seis
mic units: Palaeozoic Seismic Unit, Mesozoic Seismic Unit,
Palaeogene Seismic Unit and Neogene Seismic Unit. These
units correspond to higherorder sequences in the hierarchy of
stratigraphic sequences.
Other studies (e.g., HerreroHernández & GómezFernández
2012) conducted using seismic analysis coupled with sedi
mentological data allowed us to assign two lowfrequency
signals (2
nd
and 3
rd
order) to two depositional sequences in the
Mesozoic Seismic Unit: DS1 and DS2 (Fig. 3). The strati
graphic cyclicity is based on systems tracts and exhibits
remarkable eustatic control (Fig. 3).
Data and methods
A GIS system was implemented and was used to process
and generate original informational layers, namely digital iso
pach maps and maps of new sedimentary and structural linea
ments that were obtained from the analysis and interpretation
of raster images. These lineaments are linear features created
by tectonic activity that reflects linear geological structures,
frequently long in length, like faults, joints, aligned ridges, etc.
It is noteworthy that during the processing the geophysical
data were incorporated into the GIS environment.
Two types of complementary techniques were also
employed. First, subsurface techniques were used to obtain the
database by seismic reflection for the DS1 and DS2 deposi
tional sequences. Seventeen 2D seismic reflection (Fig. 1)
analogue profiles with a total length of around 800 km were
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Fig. 1. Regional and geological maps of the study area.
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used. These seismic sections covered an area of about
6000 m
2
. The multichannel seismic data were acquired with
vibroseis 3 (WESTERN RICERCHE) and 4 (HISPANOIL).
The receiving array consisted of 36 geophones per group, the
centre of each group was spaced either 60 or 40 m apart. The
duration of the recordings (trace length) was either 15 or 5 s,
with a sampling rate of 2 ms. The coverage was 2400 % of the
depositional sequences.
Seismic data interpretation starts with the identification of
the different horizons in the seismic sections. This method was
performed for all the seismic sections, where coordinates were
manually taken for each set of points. As a first step, it is
important to convert the seismic travel time data to depth and
stack velocity intervals to be taken into account. This coverage
allowed contour maps (two way travel time, isovelocity,
isobaths and isopachs) of the depositional sequences to be
produced.
Second, a GIS analysis (e.g., gvSIG open source,
http://www.gvsig.org/web/), was performed by integrating
and overlaying several layers. First, a layer with the location
of the shot points and wells was implemented. These points
were not spread evenly throughout the region, but they were
arranged randomly. A sufficiently extensive network of sam
pling points were set up in order to be able to interpolate and
model the spatial pattern of the isopachs of the depositional
sequences, and thus generate information for areas that lacked
data. In particular, 271 points were used for each of the depo
sitional sequences.
Isopach maps and faults maps for DS1 (Late Albian Middle
Turonian) and DS2 (Late TuronianCampanian) were obtained.
The overall objective was to describe and evaluate the changes
in the isopachs and faults during the DS1 and DS2 using
interpolation techniques. The latter was digitized and super
imposed on the former in order to correctly display the geo
logical structure.
Spatial prediction methods that enable data to be predicted
for areas in which no data exist are called interpolation methods.
There is a wide variety of classic interpolation methods that
can be applied to the mapping of continuous surfaces, such as
Radial Basis Functions, polygons from VoronoiThiessen,
inverse distance weighting (IDW), and different types of kri
ging. Also, new interpolation methods that use lines as basic
data have been proposed for geosciences (Gossel et al. 2012).
The reliability of the contour maps is directly dependent
upon the total density of control points, as well as the unifor
mity of their distribution. A goodness of fit, specifically the
KolmogorovSmirnov (KS) test, was carried out in every data
set to check whether the distribution of isopach values in DS1
and DS2 was normal. In the case of an anomalous distribution
of isopach values the use of techniques like IDW would be
necessary. The simplicity of IDW and the availability of
a complete set of extensions integrated into the gvSIG soft
ware to obtain the interpolated raster for the IDW were crucial
points for using the IDW against the kriging technique.
The data for the 3D4D analysis were obtained with the
gvSIG software, which first generated a georeferenced vector
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic profile and depositional environments of the
Boñar Formation. Modified after GómezFernández et al. (2003) and
SuárezGonzález et al. (2016).
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Fig.
3.
This
cross
section
shows
the
sequence
stratigraphic
framework
for
the
Late
Cretaceous
strata
in
the
Leonese
Area,
Iberian
Trough.
The
E–W
cross
section
is
completed
by
stratigraphic
profiles,
which
are
located
in
the
Figure
1.
On
the
far
right
is
the
inter
preted
relative
sea
level
curve.
The
terminology
as
proposed
by
Vail
et
al.
(1977);
Mitchum
et
al.
(1977);
Catuneanu
et
al.
(2009);
among
others.
Abbreviations:
LST
—
lowstand
systems
tract;
HST
—
highstand
systems
tract;
TST
—
transgressive
systems
tract;
BSFR
—
basal
surface
of
forced
regression;
MFS
—
maximum
flooding
surface;
MRS — maximum regressive surface; SD — subaerial discontinuity
.
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layer in shape format that depicted shot points and wells, each
with their coordinates and thickness. The reference system
EPSG: 25929 (ETRS89/UTMzone29N) was used. The values
were subsequently imported into the gvSIG software as a new
georeferenced layer, after the interpolation process was
conducted.
The IDW method simply means that the arbitrary value of
an unsampled point is the weighted average of the known
values within the neighbourhood. As is well known, the
weights in this method are a function of the radial distance
between the observed data points and the estimated point.
The weights are inversely related to the distances between the
sampled locations and the predicted locations (Lu & Wong
2008).
The spatial modelling was performed with the IDW inter
polation method, the formula being:
Z (s
0
) =
∑
n
=
i 1
λ
i
* Z (s
i
) (1)
where Z (s
0
) is the predicted value for the location S
0
, n is
the number of sampling points close to S
0
and which will be
taken into account when the calculation is performed,
i
is the
weight assigned to each sample point and Z (s
i
) is the observed
value of the location S
i
.
The weights were determined by the equation:
λ
i
= d
–p
/
∑
n
=
i 1
d
–p
(2)
i0 i0
where d
i0
is the distance between the location which will be
interpolated, S
0
, and each sample location, S
i
, as the distance
becomes larger, the weight is reduced by a factor of p. IDW is
a method that produced minor differences between observed
and projected data for several previous studies (Isaaks &
Srivata 1989; Webster & Oliver 2001; Sertel et al. 2007;
Krivoruchko 2011). Several trials were conducted and those
parameters that produced the smallest errors in the predicted
value were used. Because the separation between the shot
points of the seismic sections was high the input configura
tions of the settings, which were loaded into gvSIG, were an
exponent 2.0 and an inspection radio of 30 km. A smoother
raster was obtained taking into account data to interpolate
within this radius.
Once the isopach maps of DS1 and DS2 (Figs. 4 and 5)
were produced, several structural lineaments could be inter
preted. The produced lineaments map and structural analysis
were performed. The analysis was carried out by identifying
lineament and palaeochannel orientations. This analysis is of
great help for geologists to draw an image of the palaeogeo
graphic and sedimentological features as well as the location
of the main depocenters of the basin.
Several techniques have been developed to map lineaments
using automated algorithms (see Casas et al. 2000; Ekneligoda
& Henkel 2010; Elmahdy et al. 2012; Elmahdy & Mohamed
2016b). However, the lineaments were drawn manually, taking
into account previous works that were carried out in the same
area (HerreroHernández et al. 2010, 2013 and Herrero
Hernández & GómezFernández 2012). This process made it
possible to incorporate the different lineaments into the digital
isopach maps of DS1 and DS2. This was done in order to
interpret the data from a tectonic and sedimentological point
of view, which will be analysed in the following section.
Results and discussion
The quantitative digital isopach map of DS1 is shown in
Fig. 4. The values lower than 140 m thicknesses were located
in the west and southwest sectors. The lineament in the N 150
direction that curves towards the NW (Fig. 4), represents the
enclosure of the 140 m thick isoline and delimits those sectors.
This lineament was located in the SW sector of the study area
and it exemplifies the position of the palaeoshoreline during
the DS1.
Northeast of the N 150 trending lineament, the thickness of
the sediments was observed to be changed between 100 m
and 950 m. Furthermore, there is a set of corridors and/or
palaeochannels crosscutting and perpendicular to the N 150
lineament. These corridors were delimited by faults with
directions ranging between N 50 and 65 (Fig. 4) that defined
the blocks and the formation of the subbasin where the
thickness of the sediments varied in the direction NW–SE.
Thickness variations may be due to active synsedimentary
faults with N 50–65 direction. Some of them were a prolon
gation of what appeared on the surface, as in the cases of the
Yugueros and Boñar Faults (Fig. 4). However, other faults are
subsurface in type and have limited outcrops and unclear
surface criteria. Both the faults and their prolongation in the
basement, as well as some more faults scattered in the sub
surface of the region constituted a model for the DS1, con
sisting of blocks that were delimited by these faults, falling
toward the NW, where they were thicker and rising in the SE
part, where they were thinner.
The tectonic process is related to the phase of an extensional
basin that produced an array of predominantly normal and dip
slip faults, which generated a hangingwall subsidence and
a footwall uplift. The hangingwall subsidence and E and NE
palaeocurrents allow us to interpret the occurrence of the large
depocentres and faults with an orientation of N 50–65. These
faults may be linked with the incised valleys and interfluves
that were created in these areas. The position of the palaeo
shoreline (N 150), the mouth of the fluvial systems in the
marine basin that was located close to the NE, and the evolu
tion of the sea level during the Late Cretaceous period gene
rated sequence boundaries, system tracts and other scenarios
for sedimentation in a continental and coastal/marine setting.
Figure 5 shows the new isopach map that was obtained from
the DS2. A clear line in the N 170 direction, which coincides
with the position of the 160 m isoline (Fig. 5), separates
the thinner area to the southwest from the thicker area
(up to 1400 m) to the northeast of this line. This lineament
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indicates the position of the palaeoshoreline during
the DS2, and it has rotated about 20 degrees in relation
to its position during the DS1. The palaeoshoreline was
t rans gressive and showed a tendency to move landward
during DS2.
On the isopach map of the DS2, two sets of lineaments can
be distinguished (Fig. 5). The first system, with lineaments
N 100–120, is widespread in the area, and they define sub
basins that are more than 700 m thick in the northern area
(Fig. 5) and have a thickness of less than 200 m in the southern
area. It is inferred that there is a block structure limited fault
N 100–120, which sinks towards the S making it thicker, and it
rises towards the N where it is thinner.
The second group of lineaments has a N 50–65 direction, is
less extensive, and is located in the NW area of the basin.
Some lineaments appear on the surface and are identified with
the Yugueros and Boñar Faults (Fig. 5). The block bounded by
the Yugueros and Boñar faults seem to show a thinner area in
the SE, and thicker area in the NW that is in coherence with
the observation of a significant decrease in the thickness of the
sediments in the Yugueros Fault (e.g., GómezFernández et
al. 2003). Their interpretation was similar to that given by
the DS1.
It can be drawn that the DS1 and DS2 depositional
sequences showed periods of lowstand followed by two
important transgressions, which were indicated by significant
lateral changes of facies and shoreline shifts. The overall
shoreline retreat landward was associated with the transgres
sive units and were more than 10 km to the west.
During the Late Cretaceous epoch an evolution in the
tectonic structure of DS1 and DS2 occurred. This evolution
manifested itself in a gradual disappearance of the NE–SW
fault system, that was located in DS1, and which was circum
scribed to the NW area by the prolongation of the Boñar and
Yugueros Faults in DS2. Likewise, in DS2 inverse faults
with a N 100–120 direction were formed and reactivated
during the Cenozoic period, resulting in thrusts and faults
and the formation of a foreland basin, the Duero Basin, in
response to the tectonic uplifting of the Cantabrian Mountains.
The Cenozoic Duero Basin was filled up with 3500 m of
Oligocene and Miocene continental deposits (see Herrero
Hernández 2002; HerreroHernández et al. 2004, 2010),
Fig. 4. Isopach map of the DS1 interpolated from geophysical data using the IDW algorithm (Inverse Distance Weighting interpolation).
The N18 to N70 lines (dashed in general) are lineaments that represent a change in the thickness of the sediments. The N150 line represents
the position of the palaeoshoreline inferred for the DS1.
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mostly from the Cantabrian Mountains. These faults indicated
(i) the initiation of the phase of the Alpine orogeny with
compressive activity in DS2 and (ii) the cessation of the
activity on the faults with the N 50–65 direction, except in the
NW area.
The collision of India, Arabia and Africa with Asia and
Europe formed the AlpineHimalayan Belt, in which the
westernmost parts are the Pyrenean and Cantabrian Ranges
(see Dercourt et al. 1986). Previously, during the Mesozoic
postrifting, Africa shifted its motion northwards, which ini
tiated a convergence with Eurasia. This event was placed
towards the end of the Late Cretaceous (chron 33, 80 Ma) (see
Dercourt et al. 1986; Vergés & Fernández 2006). In this sense,
the compression phase that was found in DS2 can be equi
valent to this event.
Conclusions
The acquisition, processing, and interpretation of seismic
data enabled subsurface geological structures to be interpreted.
Detailed deep tectonicstructural and sedimentological data
and isopach maps obtained for depositional sequences from
Fig. 5. Isopach map of the DS2 interpolated from geophysical data and using the IDW algorithm (Inverse Distance Weighting interpolation).
The N100 to N120 lines (dashed in general) are lineaments that represent a change in the thickness of the sediments. The N170 line represents
the position of the palaeoshoreline inferred for the DS2.
the seismic acquisition and GIS techniques could be
interpreted.
The geological model reconstructions comprised two depo
sitional sequences as well as maps of the tectonic lineaments
that were interpreted taking into account the correlation with
the surface geology data. Two depositional sequences, the
DS1 sequence (Late Albian–Middle Turonian) and the DS2
sequence (Late Turonian–Campanian) could be defined in the
subsurface architecture.
The results obtained using the IDW interpolation algorithm
is much more suitable than the results of the goodness of fit
tests that showed the values were not normally distributed.
The obtained interpolated maps clearly revealed a set of linea
ments with different palaeogeographic and tectonic interpreta
tions. The depocentres were initially related to faults and the
associated palaeogeographic thresholds. These appear to be
due to thickness variation, horst and graben and fault displace
ments controlled by the basement.
The most striking tectonic structures in the Late Cretaceous
successions were the Las Bodas Syncline and the La Losilla
Anticline, with a NW–SE orientation on their axial surfaces,
and up to four important faults, namely the SaberoGordón
Fault, the Porma Fault, the Boñar Fault and the Yugueros
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Fault. Some of them were reactivated during the Cenozoic.
These tectonic structures were thought to have controlled the
sedimentary features and palaeocurrents in the Late Creta
ceous period. The results provide better constraints on the
geometry of the fluvial palaeochannels of the Late Cretaceous
successions and it can be used to better understand the geolo
gical evolution in response to sealevel fluctuations.
The interpolated maps using the IDW algorithm in a GIS
environment allowed better mapping of palaeoshorelines, with
an overall NW–SE direction that changed from N 150 (DS1)
to N 170 (DS2), and stratigraphic correlation indicating
NW–SE fault displacements.
The palaeoflow directions of the fluvial channel networks
and the observation of the corridors with a direction that was
orthogonal to the position of the coastline indicated that the
fluvial systems were transversal to the previous existing coast
lines. The factors that controlled the sedimentation processes
were the result of a combination of eustatic changes and
tectonic controls that were related to faults with synsedimen
tary activity.
In conclusion, this study integrated geophysical survey and
a GIS to map major subsurface lineaments crosscutting the
entire area. Their common trends were found to be in the
NW–SE directions, allowing us to interpret the evolution of
the depositional sequences and their sedimentological and
tectonic characteristics during the Late Cretaceous. These
were marked by spatial variation in thickness related to active
synsedimentary faults (e.g., Boñar and Yugueros Faults).
Acknowledgements: The support of the members of the
INGEOMAT Research Group (University of León) is grate
fully acknowledged. We gratefully appreciate careful and
detailed reviews by two anonymous reviewers. We thank Ján
Madarás for editorial handling.
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