GeolCarp_Vol68_No1_80

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, FEBRUARY 2017, 68, 1, 80 – 93

doi: 10.1515/geoca-2017-0007

www.geologicacarpathica.com

Geomorphological evolution of western Sicily, Italy

CIPRIANO DI MAGGIO, GIULIANA MADONIA, MARCO VATTANO,

VALERIO AGNESI and SALVATORE MONTELEONE

Università degli Studi di Palermo, Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra e del Mare, via Archirafi 22, 90123 Palermo, Italy;

cipriano.dimaggio@unipa.it, giuliana.madonia@unipa.it, marco.vattano@unipa.it, valerio.agnesi@unipa.it, salvatore.monteleone@unipa.it

(Manuscript received February 24, 2016; accepted in revised form November 30, 2016)

Abstract: This paper proposes a morphoevolutionary model for western Sicily. Sicily is a chain–foredeep–foreland

system still being built, with tectonic activity involving uplift which tends to create new relief. To reconstruct the

morphoevolutionary model, geological, and geomorphological studies were done on the basis of field survey and aerial

photographic interpretation. The collected data show large areas characterized by specific geological, geomorphological,

and topographical settings with rocks, landforms, and landscapes progressively older from south to north Sicily.

The achieved results display: (1) gradual emersion of new areas due to uplift, its interaction with the Quaternary

glacio-eustatic oscillations of the sea level, and the following production of a flight of stair-steps of uplifted marine

terraces in southern Sicily, which migrates progressively upward and inwards; in response to the uplift (2) triggering of

down-cutting processes that gradually dismantle the oldest terraces; (3) competition between uplift and down-cutting

processes, which is responsible for the genesis of river valleys and isolated rounded hills in central Sicily; (4) continuous

deepening over time that results in the exhumation of older and more resistant rocks in northern Sicily, where the higher

heights of Sicily are realized and the older forms are retained; (5) extensional tectonic event in the northern end of Sicily,

that produces the collapse of large blocks drowned in the Tyrrhenian Sea and sealed by coastal-marine deposits during

the Calabrian stage; (6) trigger of uplift again in the previously subsiding blocks and its interaction with coastal processes

and sea level fluctuations, which produce successions of marine terraces during the Middle–Upper Pleistocene stages.

Keywords: Sicily, geomorphological evolution, Quaternary, uplift, extensional tectonics, down-cutting processes,

differential erosion.

Introduction

Sicily is located on the Pelagian promontory of the African

plate and is formed by the Iblean foreland, the Gela foredeep,

the thick Sicilian orogen, and the thick-skinned Calabrian–

Peloritani wedge (Fig. 1).

Previous geological studies have shown that the fold and

thrust belt of Sicily was formed in the context of the complex

roll-back of the African–Pelagian slab that was associated first

with the counter-clockwise rotation of Corsica and Sardinia

and the subsequent clockwise rotation of the Calabria–

Peloritani–Kabylian units, during the late Neogene (e.g.,

Rosenbaum et al. 2002; Carminati et al. 2012; Catalano et al.

2013; Vitale & Ciarcia 2013). Various Authors have described

the ages of the orogenic construction of the Sicilian chain

(e.g., Avellone et al. 2010; Catalano et al. 2013 and references

therein) within the framework of the evolution of the Apennine

orogen (e.g., Ciarcia et al. 2009; Ascione et al. 2012; Ciarcia

& Vitale 2013). From the upper Oligocene, the orogenic con-

struction started with the accretion of the Calabria-Peloritani

wedge, and the deposition of flysch (e.g., Numidian flysch) in

foreland basins. During the Early–Middle Miocene the defor-

mation of the internal zone occurred, with a first tectonic event

characterized by shallow seated thrusting; at the same time,

the first wedge-top basins developed. From the Late Miocene,

a second tectonic event characterized by deep-seated

transpressive deformation occurred, and extension took place

in the Tyrrhenian Sea as the shortening and thrusting in the

arcuate Apennines–Sicily, east- and southward-directed

orogens. The extensional deformation propagates towards

the SE associated with the fast retreat and roll-back of the

NW-dipping subduction of the Adria–Ionian plate underneath

Calabria (Malinverno & Ryan 1986; Doglioni et al. 1999;

Pepe et al. 2005; Carminati & Doglioni 2012 and references

therein).

According to the plate tectonic setting, the topography and

geomorphology of Sicily is the result of constructive (tec-

tonic) and destructive (erosional) forces following the colli-

sion between the African and European plates, that produced,

among other things, the Sicilian Mountains.

Previous geomorphological studies have been performed

since the first half of last century (e.g., Cipolla 1933) and have

undergone a boost in recent decades. They deal with the recon-

struction of the geomorphology of small areas (e.g., Mauz et

al. 1997; Di Maggio et al. 1999) or specific thematic studies

(e.g., Ferrarese et al. 2003; Di Maggio et al. 2012, 2014;

Madonia et al. 2013; Vattano et al. 2013; De Waele et al.

2016).

Hugonie (1982) carried out studies on a regional scale and

proposed a morphoevolutionary model for northern Sicily,

emphasizing the role of both structure and climate. Hugonie

(1982) imputed to the Plio–Quaternary tectonic phase, the

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genesis of the topographic highs and lows of northern Sicily;

to the interaction between uplift and river incision led by dif-

ferential erosion, the enhancement of the differences in height

between the topographic highs and lows, previously produced;

to the Quaternary climatic fluctuations, the degradation of tec-

tonic and river slopes.

Based on successions of planation surfaces, erosion glacis

on soft rocks and coastal terraces, developing between

1900 m a.s.l. and the present-day sea level, Agnesi et al. (2000)

and Di Maggio (2000) proposed polycyclic morphoevolutio-

nary models for north-western Sicily. These models provide

for the development of processes of planation/abrasion that

migrate to lower altitudes, over time, due to the relative pro-

gressive lowering of the base level of erosion produced by

a gradual trend to uplift.

This paper is an opportunity for synthesis and analysis of

numeous data we collected over the last 25 years, many of

which are here published for the first time, supplemented by

a wealth of information contained in the geological and geo-

morphological literature, in order to reconstruct a morphoevo-

lutionary model for the whole of western Sicily. We present

here the results of this reconstruction.

Geological background

Western Sicily (Fig. 1) is part of the SE-verging Alpine oro-

genic belt in the central Mediterranean region and connects

north-eastern Sicily, formed by a “European” element (Pelori-

tani units), to the late Cenozoic Maghrebian chain. In this con-

tinental subduction collisional complex, several tectonic and

stratigraphic elements are differentiated (Fig. 1; Catalano et al.

1996, 2002, 2013 and references therein): 1) A complex con-

sisting of a SE-vergent fold and thrust belt, which is composed

of a “Tethyan” element (Sicilidi units) and an African element

(Sicilian units); 2) The Sicilidi units are represented by

repeated imbricate slice stack deriving from the deformation

of Upper Jurassic–Oligocene basin carbonates and sandy

mudstones located in the Sicilide facies domain; 3) The Sici-

lian units are characterized by allochthonous tectonic units

deriving from the deformation of Permian–Miocene deep-

water carbonates and bedded cherts deposited in the Imerese

and Sicanian basins (Basilone et al. 2014, 2016); and Meso-

zoic–Miocene shelf-to-pelagic carbonates located in the

Panormide, Trapanese, Saccense, and Iblean-Pelagian carbo-

nate platform or seamount facies domain; 4) upper

Fig. 1. Geological map of Sicily (data compiled from various Authors — e.g., Catalano et al. 2000, 2013 — modified and simplified).

Inset map shows the main elements of the collisional complex of Sicily (FFTB, Fold and Thrust Belt; BUPP, Boundary of Undeformed Iblean–

Pelagian carbonate Platform).

DI MAGGIO, MADONIA, VATTANO, AGNESI and MONTELEONE

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Oligocene–middle Miocene turbiditic deposits

(Numidian flysch) cover the Sicilide, Imerese, and

Panormide rock successions; lower–upper Miocene

deformed foreland marls cover the Sicanian, Trapa-

nese, and Saccense rock successions; Oligocene–

Quaternary foreland open shelf carbonates cover the

Iblean–Pelagian rock successions; 5) A thick pack

consisting of middle Miocene–Pleistocene foreland,

wedge-top and foredeep basin deposits (terrigenous,

evaporitic, and clastic carbonate rocks), which

largely form the Gela Thrust System; 6) A deep-

seated and buried foreland, slightly deformed, crops

out only in the south-eastern end of Sicily and in the

floor of the Sicily Channel.

Fig. 2 shows simplified stratigraphy and original

facies domains of the rock bodies of western Sicily.

The tectonic evolution of the western Sicily belt

was a progressive accretion of thrust sheets (Cata-

lano et al. 2000) and duplex formation (Catalano et

al. 1996), combined with the clockwise rotation of

the allochthonous blocks (Oldow et al. 1990;

Speranza et al. 2003).

In this context, a Miocene contractional deforma-

tion originally produced the progressive detachment

of the Sicilidi units and Numidian flysch cover

(Puglisi 2014) and their stacking over deep water

carbonates (Imerese units), in their turn overthrus-

ting both Sicanian units and shallow water carbo-

nates (Panormide, Trapanese, and Saccense units

— Catalano et al. 2013). Deposition of coeval fore-

deep and wedge-top sediments (Butler et al. 2015;

Gasparo Morticelli et al. 2015) accompanied the for-

mer event of shallow seated thrusting. Subsequently,

during the Pliocene Epoch a deep-seated transpres-

sive event redeformed the innermost tectonic units

stacked during the first Miocene event (Avellone et

al. 2010); more externally, a contractional event pro-

duced the inception of the wedging of the Gela

Thrust System overlying the earlier and shallower

allochthonous units. These two events also involved

the wedge-top basin marly carbonates of the Trubi

unit (lower Pliocene; Fig. 2), which are widespread

all over Sicily up to the higher altitudes (over 1400 m

a.s.l.; Abate et al. 1991). Finally, a Plio–Pleistocene

back-arc tectonics originates high-angle extensional

faults affecting the northern coastal area of Sicily

and southern Tyrrhenian Sea (Pepe et al. 2005;

Cuffaro et al. 2011).

Topography

The presence of a main fold-thrust belt influences

the relief of Sicily (Figs. 1, 3). An E–W mountain

range (Sicilian Apennines) is its topographical

expression. The range forms a long and almost

Fig. 2. Schematic stratigraphy and original facies domains of the rock bodies of

western Sicily (data compiled from various Authors — e.g., Catalano et al. 2013

— modified and simplified).

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, 2017, 68, 1, 80 – 93

continuous ridge in the northern region of Sicily, from Pelori-

tani and Nebrodi to the Madonie and Palermo Mountains,

locally interrupted by N–S narrow and deep transverse valleys

of the main rivers draining into the Tyrrhenian Sea (Pollina,

Imera Settentrionale, Torto, and San Leonardo rivers). In the

north-western and central-western areas, coastal plains and

a set of rounded hills and broad valleys, from which a series

of isolated reliefs of the Trapani and Sicani Mountains rises

up, break the physical continuity of the mountain range.

The mountain range and isolated peaks coincide with succes-

sions of “hard” and “resistant” rocks hundreds of metres thick

(Mesozoic carbonate units), on which the highest relief lies;

the deep, narrow or broad valleys and the set of rounded hills

are situated on “weak” and easily erodible rocks (calcilutites,

marls, and clays of the Mesozoic basin units; Mio–Pliocene

cover deposits).

On the northern side of Sicily, the proximity of the mountain

range to the Tyrrhenian coast involves the existence of a num-

ber of rivers with short and very inclined channels, in which

the water flows from S to N. The intense incision processes of

these rivers produced deep V-shaped valleys with from

medium to strongly inclined slopes, separated by usually sharp

ridges. The valley bottoms become wide and flat only near the

mouths along the discontinuous coastal plains.

Along the central and southern side of Sicily, the larger dis-

tance between the mountain range and the southern coast

enables the development of longer and slightly inclined rivers

flowing from NNE to SSW (e.g., Belice, Platani, and Salso

rivers) on a substrate of weak rocks (Mio–Pliocene foredeep

and wedge-top deposits). The lower erosional power of these

rivers has produced shallow valleys with gently inclined

slopes and flat or rounded bottoms, separated by low hills.

V-shaped valleys are only found in the head of the great catch-

ment areas, located along the southern side of the mountain

range, and in the lower-order rivers.

In the broad NW–SE coastal strip of the Sicilian Channel, the

relief lowers gradually to a landscape of large plains, located in

resistant Quaternary clastic rocks and cut by deep canyons with

flat bottoms that become wider as they approach the mouth.

Methods

Geological and geomorphological analyses consisting of

field mapping, aerial photography interpretation, and compa-

rison with bibliographic data were performed with the aim of

defining a morphoevolutionary model of western Sicily.

Geological data were mainly obtained from previous studies

(Catalano et al. 2013 and references therein) and field surveys

in selected key areas (zones affected by Quaternary deposits

and topographic expressions due to tectonics; as in the northern

coastal plains).

Geomorphological data regarding the presence of landforms

directly or indirectly produced by tectonics, and the relation-

ships between landforms and their geological framework were

collected. We searched and examined (Figs. 4, 5) fault scarps/

Fig. 3. Shaded relief and main geomorphological units of western Sicily (DTM from Sicilian Regional Environmental Department).

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The terms “fault slope” and “fault-line slope” are used to

indicate a gentle hillslope with an origin related to the evolu-

tion of a fault scarp or a fault-line scarp, and as a result of

processes of slope replacement or slope decline; structurally

controlled complex slope indicates a hillslope made up of an

alternation of hard and weak rocks, on which an alternation of

steep and gentle slopes is respectively produced.

In addition, we worked out some geological cross-sections

(Fig. 6) to better recognize landforms and generally the rela-

tionships between topography and geological features.

Data and results

We present here the data from the morphotectonic studies

performed in western Sicily from its southernmost zones.

A stair-step flight of uplifted marine terraces develops from

sea level up to about 450 m a.s.l. in the southern areas of

western Sicily (Figs. 3, 4a–c, 5a–c, 6a–c). The oldest and

highest marine terraces are carved in Calabrian clastic rocks

(Agrigento fm.; Figs. 4c, 5c, 6b) of the Santernian regional

stage (sensu Ruggieri et al. 1984), that postdate the genesis of

the terraces to marine highstand phases of the late Calabrian–

Late Pleistocene. In these areas, the better-preserved terraces

are in the westernmost southern region (Marsala – Castel-

vetrano – Sciacca area; Figs. 4a,c, 5a,c), where less orders

and very large polycyclic coastal platforms are recognized

(Fig. 6b, c); and near the coasts, where only the most recent

terraces occur. Towards the south-eastern coast and towards

the interior (Realmonte – Palma di Montechiaro area; Figs. 4b,

5b), marine terraces are dissected by river valleys and become

fragmented (Fig. 6a); some cycles of river terraces or erosion

glacis on soft rocks are present in the valley slopes (Figs. 4e,

5e, 6a). Along the coast of the south-western end, fossils of

Strombus bubonius and assemblages of “Senegalese fauna” of

the Tyrrhenian regional stage (Antonioli et al. 2006 and refe-

rences therein), contained in coastal deposits lying on wave-

cut platforms, allow us to recognize the marine terrace of the

Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5.5. On the south-eastern coast,

the terrace deposits contain insignificant fossils (Strombus

bubonius is missing), and the terrace of the last interglacial is

inferred from altitude and “preservation” (we think that it is

the better-preserved, broader, and quite continuous terrace

occurring at the lower heights). The inner edge of the MIS 5.5

terrace is from 10 m (SW coast) to 55 m a.s.l. (SE coast). On

the south-eastern coast, at lower altitudes we also recognize

occasional and smaller marine terraces post-MIS 5.5 with

wave-cut platforms developed between 0 and 15 m a.s.l. (e.g.,

Eraclea area)

In the inland areas of central-western Sicily, the marine ter-

races disappear and are gradually replaced with a dense net-

work of river valleys (Figs. 3, 4e, 5e, 6a,c– e). River valleys

isolate small rounded hills (e.g., Caltanissetta area; Figs. 4e,

5e) in weak rocks (Mio–Pliocene clays and marls of foredeep

and wedge-top deposits) or steep structural reliefs (e.g.,

M. Capodarso; M. Gibil Gabel; Figs. 4e, 5e) in hard rocks

(Mio–Pliocene gypsum, calcarenites, and conglomerates

intercalated in the foredeep and wedge-top marly/clayey

deposits). Along the areas closest to the coastal regions, the

structural reliefs are anticline ridges, and syncline depressions

(e.g., Siculiana area; Fig. 6a). In the inland areas, they are syn-

clinal ridges (e.g., Ciminna area), and anticline valleys (e.g.,

upper valley of San Leonardo river; Fig. 6a), both delimited by

structurally-controlled complex slopes (Fig. 6e); or isolated

mountains bounded by obsequent fault-line scarps and

founded on blocks lowered by faults (e.g., Rocca Entella).

Successions of river terraces and erosion glacis on soft rocks

are also present along the hillslopes (e.g., middle-upper valley

of Belice river).

Large structural mountains coincident with tectonic highs

and set on Mesozoic carbonate rocks occur in the northern

areas of western Sicily and in the Sicani Mountains (Figs. 3,

4d,f–h, 5d,f–h, 6d–g); they are pop-up or anticline-type moun-

tains (e.g., Kumeta and Busambra ridges; Figs. 4d, 5d, 6d).

River canyons and narrow V-valleys down-cut these moun-

tains. Broad and deep valleys coincident with tectonic lows

and founded on Mio–Pliocene mainly clayey rocks separate

the main mountain groups; they are synclinal or triangle zone-

type valleys (Figs. 4d, 5d). Along the valley slopes, flights of

river terraces or erosion glacis on soft rocks are also present

(e.g., valley of Imera Settentrionale river). Mountains and val-

leys are the result of strong processes of river down-cutting

and generally intense denudation, which are selectively per-

formed; the boundaries between mountains and valleys are in

fact marked by wide resequent fault-line scarps and slopes or

large inclined structural surfaces (e.g., M. San Calogero;

Figs. 4d,f, 5d,f, 6d,e). Relicts of hanging planation surfaces,

located from a few hundred metres to over 1900 m a.s.l., are

present along the slopes and at the top of the mountains. These

planation surfaces are not entirely flat or very gently rolling

but also include small ridges, hills, and abandoned valleys

(low-relief surfaces) due to partial relief reduction (e.g., area

of M. Ferro – Carbonara; Figs. 4g, 5g). In the head areas of the

river basins that flow into the Tyrrhenian Sea, a number of

streams show an inverted drainage produced by river capture

processes at the expense of the southern catchments (e.g.,

upper area of the basins of the Iato and San Leonardo

rivers; Fig. 3).

Large and discontinuous topographical depressions occur

on the northern side of western Sicily (Tyrrhenian coast).

A flat bottom (coastal plain), opened to sea and surrounded by

wide scarps hundreds of metres tall to the inland, characterizes

these depressions (e.g., Castelluzzo and Conca d’Oro plains;

Figs. 3, 4h, 5h, 6f,g). Wedges of Calabrian coastal and neritic

clastic deposits from few to tens of metres thick crop out in the

coastal plains. These deposits belong to the Marsala synthem

(Di Maggio et al. 2008, 2009) and date to the Emilian–Sicilian

regional stages (sensu Ruggieri et al. 1984); in addition, they

show a very slight dip to the sea and lie on the Meso–Cenozoic

rocks with strong angular unconformities. Along the coastal

plains, successions of marine terraces develop from 0 m up to

100 m (plain of Castelluzzo; Figs. 4h, 5h), 200 m (plain of

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Palermo) or 300 m a.s.l. (plains of Partinico, Buonfornello and

Sant’Agata di Militello). These terraces are carved on

Emilian–Sicilian deposits or pre-Quaternary rocks (Figs. 4h,

5h, 6f,g). The first postdate the age of the terraces to marine

highstand phases of the Middle–Upper Pleistocene stages, as

supported by palaeontological records (Di Maggio et al. 1999

and references therein; Antonioli et al. 2006 and references

therein) and numerous isotopic datings performed on terrace

deposits by previous Researchers (Hearty et al. 1986; Bada et

al. 1991; Mauz et al. 1997; Antonioli et al. 1999; Scicchitano

et al. 2011; Giunta et al. 2012). These terraces are also charac-

terized by few orders and large and well-preserved polycyclic

wave-cut surfaces in north-western Sicily (e.g., plains of

Castelluzzo and Trapani), and by several orders and narrow

and dissected coastal platforms as they proceed eastward

(plains of Buonfornello and Sant’Agata di Militello). The inner

edge of the MIS 5.5 terraces is from 10 m (Trapani and San

Vito lo Capo areas), 15 m (plain of Castelluzzo and Partinico),

20 m (Palermo area), 25 m (plain of Buonfornello) to about

50 m a.s.l. (Sant’Agata di Militello area). Geological and geo-

morphological analysis further show that the wide and tall

scarps surrounding the coastal plains are abandoned coastal

cliffs derived from original fault scarps (Figs. 4f,h, 5f,h, 6f,g).

Some large tectonically-controlled cliffs are still active, falling

in a sheer drop into the sea; whereas broad fault scarps or

slopes affect the innermost areas, along the mountain flanks

facing the sea, where they cut off and displace the ancient

low-relief surfaces (Figs. 4h, 5h, 6g). The presence of great

fault scarps and “lowered blocks” at their foot allows the

coastal depressions to be interpreted as half-grabens. Finally,

a number of forms produced by DSGSD phenomena are present

along the mountains of the Tyrrhenian coast and inland

characterized by high relief.

Discussion

The collected data from western Sicily show four distin-

guished regions (Figs. 1, 3), marked by peculiar geological,

geomorphological, and topographical settings with rocks,

landforms, and landscapes progressively older from south

to north. We find flat coastal areas characterized by

upper Miocene–Quaternary evaporite/clastic rocks in

southern Sicily, where successions of uplifted marine terraces

are present; hilly areas characterized by Oligocene–Pliocene

clayey, marly and evaporite deposits in central Sicily, where

rounded valleys and isolated rolling hills occur; mountain

areas characterized by mainly Mesozoic carbonate rocks

in northern Sicily, where exhumed structural mountains

and deep V-valleys develop; topographically-depressed

coastal areas characterized by Quaternary clastic deposits

lying with strong unconformity on Meso–Cenozoic rocks

on the northern side of Sicily, where stair-step flights of

uplifted marine terraces occur along tectonic lows (half-

graben) bounded inwards by large tectonically-controlled

coastal cliffs.

For the whole of western Sicily, geomorphological survey

points out both numerous forms produced by river down-

cutting, such as V-valleys and canyons; and a number of forms

due to a downward migration of erosion, namely staircases of

planation surfaces, erosion glacis on soft rocks, and river or

marine terraces. River down-cutting and development of

“terraced surfaces” indicate a gradual lowering trend in the

general base level of erosion. This trend is typical of areas

affected by a widespread uplift trend (Ahnert 1970; Chappell

1974; Iwata 1987; Merritts & Hesterberg 1994; Burbank et al.

1996; Abbott et al. 1997; Whipple & Tucker 1999; Hovius

2000; Jamieson et al. 2004; Ascione et al. 2008; Walker et al.

2011; Gioia et al. 2014).

Along the northern side of western Sicily, geological, and

geomorphological analyses underline the occurrence of

lowered faulted blocks (half-graben) sealed by the Calabrian

deposits of the Marsala synthem; these latter lie on Mesozoic

or Cenozoic rocks with strong angular unconformities.

The acquired information indicates an extensional tectonic

event producing subsidence, block drowning, and deposition

of the Marsala synthem, which occurred in northern Sicily

during the Calabrian stage. At the same time, a similar tectonic

event producing horst-and-graben structures also involved the

Tyrrhenian margin of the southern Apennines (Amato &

Cinque 1999; Caiazzo et al. 2006).

The overall analysis of data allows the proposition of the

morphoevolutionary model described below (Fig. 7).

During the Quaternary period, coastal morphogenesis and

tectonic uplift have dominated the more recently surfaced

southern areas. After the deposition of the clastic sediments

belonging to the Agrigento fm. (after the Santernian regional

stage) coastal processes over time produced wave-cut plat-

forms and slightly later deposition of coastal sediments.

Owing to uplift movements, the coastal platforms developing

during marine highstand phases, in warm climate events,

progressively emerged and migrated to higher altitudes, pro-

ducing the present-day stair-step flight of marine terraces.

Given the altitude of the inner edge of the MIS 5.5 marine

terrace, the average rate of post-Tyrrhenian uplift is between

0.032 (SW coast) and 0.4 m/ky (SE coast). Unlike our inter-

pretations, Antonioli et al. (2006) suppose that the Tyrrhenian

terrace is drowned beneath the Sicilian Channel, suggesting

a post-Tyrrhenian tectonic subsidence in southern Sicily

linked to the development of the Quaternary Gela foredeep.

However, as previously discussed, all our data from south to

north Sicily show a geomorphological evolution characterized

by prevailing vertical erosion and downward migration of the

general base level of erosion, indicating a tectonic uplift trend.

As demonstrated by the facies and distribution of the Neogene

to Santernian marine units present here, this area of “old”

foredeep/wedge-top basins was submerged during the con-

struction of the accretionary wedge. After the end of the accre-

tion, and the south-westward constant migration of the Gela

Thrust System and its foredeep (the present-day Gela Fore-

deep is further south-west of the southern coasts of Sicily), it

is fair to assume that the elastic rebound of the Iblean-Pelagian

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slab involves uplift (Doglioni 1991), and processes of gradual

land emersion. On the other hand, if the low rates of uplift

(0.032 m/ky) have ensured that the sea returns to the same

level several times, creating well developed polycyclic plat-

forms, and that the slow emersion of the latter produces the

present-day existence of broad and well preserved flat sur-

faces in the south-western coastal areas, the higher uplift rates

we achieve in the south-eastern coastal areas (0.4 m/ky) better

explain the numerous orders of marine terraces present here,

consisting of smaller wave-cut platforms strongly dissected by

river valleys (Chappell 1983; Schumann et al. 2012 and refe-

rences therein).

The geomorphological setting of central-, and north-western

Sicily is the result of the interaction between the tectonic uplift

acting to elevate the relief and the following processes of river

incision and denudation in general, which tend to lower it,

removing great volumes of rock (e.g., Summerfield 1991;

Kooi & Beaumont 1996; Burbank & Anderson 2012). These

regions represent areas that became dry land long ago, and

where erosion has already removed younger upper clastic

deposits, destroyed ancient marine terraces, and progressively

exhumed older underlying rock.

In central-western Sicily, river incision and denudation pro-

cesses over time dismantled more resistant Quaternary cover

rocks and unearthed easily erodible Neogene rocks below.

Isolated, rounded hills originated on the latter. Anticlinal

ridges and synclinal valleys developed where the progressive

down-cutting has resulted in the exhumation of deeper folded

layers of hard rock (middle–upper Miocene evaporite lime-

stones and gypsum, and conglomeratic and sandstone

benches). In the innermost areas, where a major incision par-

tially brought to light masses of weak rock again (Oligocene–

middle Miocene clayey component deposits) relief inversion

processes (Summerfield 1991; Pain & Ollier 1995) produced

synclinal ridges and anticlinal valleys, or topographic highs

and lows located on previously lowered and uplifted, faulted

blocks, respectively. Rounded hills were formed again, where

erosion totally removed the Miocene layers of hard rocks.

Therefore, data analysis shows that the strong denudation

involves novel and continuously changing landforms, although

relief modelling affects these areas for a long time.

In north-western Sicily and the Sicani Mountains, the ever

deeper progress of the erosion led to the exhumation of the

oldest rock successions in Sicily (Mesozoic–lower Oligocene

carbonates). The result is a geomorphological setting charac-

terized by large landforms due to differential erosion. Gene-

rally, the down-cutting processes considerably slowed down

along the resistant carbonate rocks, located on structural highs,

producing an elevated and large mountain relief (pop-up or

anticline-type mountains); whereas they acted with greater

strength and depth along the easily erodible rocks (upper

Oligocene–Miocene clays and marls) still preserved in struc-

tural lows, creating deep and wide river valleys (synclinal or

triangle zone-type valleys). The cause which led to a general

matching between topography and tectonic structure is the

geological setting marked by weak rocks above hard rocks

(Agnesi et al. 2000; Di Maggio 2000); unlike central-western

Sicily, where the occurrence of weak rocks beneath hard rocks

permitted the development of relief inversion processes. How-

ever, the large distribution of resistant carbonate rocks in

north-western Sicily is responsible for the preservation of the

oldest landforms of Sicily, such as the not fully developed pla-

nation surfaces with their hanging, small ridges and hills, and

abandoned valleys. Within the geomorphological literature,

similar landform set is known as palaeolandscape

(Widdowson 1997 and references therein), gentle erosional

landscape (Amato & Cinque 1999) or relict landscape (Clark

et al. 2006). Though the best potential for their preservation

exists in the cratonic cores and in the tectonically stable inte-

riors of continents, planation surfaces and low-relief surfaces

Fig. 7. Morphoevolutionary model of western Sicily. See text for discussion.

DI MAGGIO, MADONIA, VATTANO, AGNESI and MONTELEONE

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2017, 68, 1, 80 – 93

may also be identified within several orogenic belts (e.g.,

Winkler-Hermaden 1957; Adams 1985; Iwata 1987; Kennan

et al. 1997; Amato & Cinque 1999; Frisch et al. 2000; Clark et

al. 2006; Legrain et al. 2014). In agreement with the interpre-

tation of Amato & Cinque (1999) for the Campano–Lucano

Apennines, the relicts of the planation surfaces and their con-

nected landforms of western Sicily belong to uncompleted

erosion cycles that had a duration of some hundred thousand

years and that occurred during the construction of the chain,

when the relief was located at a lower elevation, but higher

and far from the base-level (S coast), though the topographical

surface was gently graded. The subsequent erosion then cut

down the surrounding areas on weak rock, leaving low-relief

surfaces on resistant rock. In addition, these relicts remained

until the present-day because the Sicilian Apennines are a very

recent belt, lately surfaced, and the erosion has not had enough

time to lead to intersection of river valleys and to reach the

innermost areas.

In the northern end of western Sicily and after the construc-

tion of an elevated relief, the important extensional tectonic

event that occurred during the Calabrian stage (about 1.5 Ma

— Hugonie 1982) produced normal faults representing the

peripheral effect of the back-arc extension of the Tyrrhenian

Sea (Amato & Cinque 1999; Nigro & Renda 2005; Pepe et al.

2005; Caiazzo et al. 2006; Di Stefano et al. 2007; Cuffaro et al.

2011; Carminati & Doglioni 2012). These faults resulted in the

displacement of the previous low-relief surfaces and the dis-

mantling, collapse, and lowering of the northernmost margin

of the Sicilian mountain belt under the Tyrrhenian Sea.

Furthermore, the extensional event produced the large fault

scarps hundreds of metres tall, some of which were changed

into sea cliffs, and allowed the deposition of the Marsala

synthem along the drowned faulted-blocks that were affected

by subsidence during the Emilian-Sicilian regional stages. As

a result of a subsequent uplift event (during or shortly after the

Sicilian stage) these blocks gradually emerged starting during

the Middle Pleistocene stage, as indicated by the present-day

stair-step flights of uplifted marine terraces of the Middle-

Upper Pleistocene stages, which are located in the northern

coastal plains up to about 100-300 m a.s.l. Based on the alti-

tude of the inner edge of the MIS 5.5 and in agreement with

the researchers who studied these coastal areas (Mauz et al.

1997; Antonioli et al. 1999, 2006; Di Maggio et al. 1999;

Scicchitano et al. 2011; Giunta et al. 2012; ; Sulli et al. 2013;

Basilone & Di Maggio 2016) the average rate of the post-

Tyrrhenian uplift is between about 0.032 – 0.1 (NW coast) and

0.36 m/ky (NE coast). Generally, a few, large polycyclic

coastal platforms overlooking the MIS 5.5 marine terrace

developed where the uplift rate is less than 0.1 m/ky (e.g.,

Trapani and San Vito lo Capo areas); while successions of several

orders of marine terraces consisting of smaller coastal plat-

forms occurred where the uplift rate is higher than 0.1– 0.15 m/ky

(e.g., plain of Buonfornello; Sant’Agata di Militello area).

On the northern side of Sicily, the post-Sicilian uplift causes

of the previously subsiding blocks might be found in the con-

tinuous rise of the footwall of the extensional faults, which

would “passively” involve and drag up the lowered hanging

wall laid on it.

More generally, the crustal shortening, thickening and con-

sequent isostatic compensation affecting all zones of collision

can explain the low rates of widespread uplift (maximum

value 0.4 m/ky) recorded in western Sicily from south to north

(Babault & Van Den Driessche 2013; Schoenbohm 2013 and

references therein).

The effects of the tectonic processes affecting the whole of

western Sicily (gradual Quaternary uplift from south to north;

sudden Emilian block-faulting to its northern side) consist of

a strong asymmetry in its topographic profile, with a northern

slope much shorter and steeper than the southern slope.

Accordingly, the steeper northern rivers with a higher erosion

power are characterized by regressive erosion and over time

have enlarged their catchment areas at the expense of the

southern river basins, through capture phenomena (see

inverted drainage phenomena in the head areas on the northern

river basins). Following these processes, the regional water-

shed is currently located further south than the line connecting

the highest mountain peaks of Sicily.

Furthermore, the river down-cutting, uplift movements, and

extensional tectonics result in a high relief that is a major

cause of the development of the surface landslides and DSGSD

phenomena affecting the mountain areas of northern Sicily

(Di Maggio et al. 2014 and references therein; Agnesi et al. 2015).

Finally, as regards the timing of the geomorphological evo-

lution of Sicily it is necessary to specify the following con-

straints: (1) the deep-water marly carbonates of the Trubi unit

testify that the studied fold and thrust belt was still largely

submerged by the sea up to the lower Pliocene (3.6 Ma);

(2) the marine clastic deposits of the Agrigento fm. indicate

that the emersion of the southern areas of western Sicily began

after the post-Santernian (1.5 Ma ago); (3) the shallow-water

clastic deposits of the Marsala synthem and their relationships

with the substratum show that the areas of the northern side

were above the surface in the pre-Emilian (before 1.5 Ma),

submerged during the Emilian–Sicilian interval (1.5 – 0.8 Ma

ago), and again emerged from the Sicilian regional stage (after

0.8 Ma ago). Consequently, the emersion of the older areas of

central and northern Sicily and the beginning of the first relief

modelling processes occurred between 3.6 –1.5 Ma ago.

Conclusion

The reconstruction of the geomorphological evolution of

western Sicily highlights the following:

• The occurrence of a very recent mountain belt, which

started its geomorphological evolution less than 3.6 Ma ago

and only recently rose above sea level.

• The creation of new relief in the southern areas affected

by uplift, the causes of which are to be found in the elastic

rebound of the Iblean-Pelagian slab following the

south-westward constant migration of the accretionary

wedge and its foredeep.

GEOMORPHOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF WESTERN SICILY, ITALY

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2017, 68, 1, 80 – 93

• The interaction between uplift, coastal processes, and sea

level changes in southern areas, responsible for the produc-

tion of a staircase of marine terraces.

• The upward and inwards gradual migration of the created

relief, with the south-westward progressive shift of the

shoreline, owing to uplift produced by isostatic compensa-

tion following the crustal shortening and thickening.

• The interaction between uplift and river down-cutting in

central and northern areas, responsible for the dismantling

of the easily erodible younger rocks (Quaternary clastic

deposits and Neogene clays) and older landforms (e.g.,

marine terraces), exhumation of the underlying resistant

older rocks (Messinian gypsum and Mesozoic carbonates),

and genesis of river valleys and isolated hills/mountains.

• The gradual increase of relief from south to north, respon-

sible for the development of differential erosion, DSGSDs,

surface landslides, and a strong denudation generally.

• The occurrence of a constantly changing relief on easily

erodible rocks in central areas, in which novel, and conti-

nually reworked landforms develop.

• The production of an elevated relief, built on resistant

rocks to the north, on which the oldest landforms (low-relief

surfaces) are better preserved.

• The disruption of relief on the northern side of Sicily

occurring about 1.5 Ma ago, the causes of which are to be

found in the extensional tectonics linked to the opening of

the back-arc basin of the Tyrrhenian Sea.

• The formation of shallow-water basins, affected by sub-

sidence between 1.5 – 0.8 Ma ago, and developed on the

lowering faulted blocks flooded from the sea along the areas

of the northern side.

• The triggering of uplift again in the previously subsiding

blocks occurring from about 0.8 Ma, the interaction of

which with coastal processes and sea level fluctuations pro-

duces the succession of marine terraces along the areas of

the northern side.

Finally, it should be noted that the morphoevolutionary

model presented here fits well with the geological and geo-

morphological settings, and the topography of western Sicily,

characterized by outcroppings of progressively older rocks

and landforms from south to north, and their sudden “rejuve-

nation” in the areas of the northern side, and by a gradually

increasing relief from south to north, and its sudden falling in

the areas of the northern side.

Acknowledgements: We are grateful to the two anonymous

referees for their helpful and constructive comments that

improved the paper. We wish to thank the Managing Editor,

Milan Kohút, for his valuable assistance.

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