GeolCarp_Vol68_No1_29

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, FEBRUARY 2017, 68, 1, 29 – 42

doi: 10.1515/geoca-2017-0003

www.geologicacarpathica.com

Long-term landscape evolution of the Molise sector of the

central-southern Apennines, Italy

VINCENZO AMATO

, PIETRO P.C. AUCELLI

, VITO BRACONE

, MASSIMO CESARANO

and CARMEN MARIA ROSSKOPF

Department of Biosciences and Territory, University of Molise, C. da Fonte Lappone, 86090 Pesche (IS), Italy;

vincenzo.amato@unimol.it, vito.bracone@unimol.it, cesarano@unimol.it, rosskopf@unimol.it

Department of Science and Technology, “Parthenope” University Naples, Centro Direzionale, Isola C4, 80143 Napoli, Italy;

pietro.aucelli@uniparthenope.it

(Manuscript received February 11, 2016; accepted in revised form November 30, 2016)

Abstract: This paper concerns the reconstruction of the main stages of the long-term landscape evolution of the Molise

portion of the central-southern Apennines along a transect divided into three sectors (SW, Central and NE). Analysis

mainly focused on geomorphological, stratigraphical and structural data supported by chronological constraints, coming

from an overall review of past literature and several studies carried out by the authors of the paper during the last 20 years.

The results obtained allowed the elaboration of a conceptual model of the long-term evolution of the Molise sector of the

central-southern Apennines. Starting from the Pliocene, the emersion of the Molise area occurred gradually from SW to

NE, allowing a polycyclic landscape to evolve under the major controls first of compression then transtensional to

extensional tectonics as well as climatic variations. Principal markers of the Quaternary geomorphological evolution of

the Molise area are represented by the infill successions of the intermontane tectonic depressions located in its internal,

SW sector and by four orders of palaeosurfaces that developed between the Early Pleistocene and the beginning of the

Late Pleistocene across the region. These markers testify to the alternation of phases of substantial tectonic stability and

uplift whose spatial-temporal distribution could be assessed along the investigated transect. Results highlight that the

most important stages of landscape evolution occurred during the Early and Middle Pleistocene. At the beginning of the

Late Pleistocene, the Molise sector of the Apennine chain had already reached its present setting and further landscape

evolution occurred under the major control of climate and land-use.

Keywords: young orogen, tectonics, Apennine chain, geomorphological evolution, palaeolandscape, chronostratigraphy,

Plio–Pleistocene.

Introduction

The Molise region is located in the axial and external sectors

of the junction zone between the central and southern Apen-

nine chains (Fig. 1). This region is characterized by diversified

landscapes mainly constituted by high mountain areas (up to

2000 m), hilly environments, intermontane basins, river valleys

and alternating high coast and alluvial coastal plain sectors

(Fig. 1). Each of these landscapes presents different morpho-

logical and geological-structural features in terms of both

surface and deep structure, reflecting an individual Quaternary

morphogenesis and evolution.

Studies concerning landforms and their post-orogenic mor-

phological evolution are generally very complex and require

an interdisciplinary approach that primarily involves geomor-

phology, field and structural geology and chronostratigraphy,

and must give due consideration to Quaternary post-orogenic

tectonic events that occurred in the central and southern Apen-

nine chain.

For the Apennines that are one of the youngest mountain

chains in the world, these approaches have been successfully

applied in several sectors of the central and southern Apen-

nines (Brancaccio et al. 1979, 1988, 2000; Bosi et al. 1996;

Amato & Cinque 1999; Coltorti & Pieruccini 2000; Bartolini

et al. 2003; D’Alessandro et al. 2003; Schiattarella et al. 2003,

2006; Coltorti et al. 2005; Di Bucci et al. 2005; Aucelli et al.

2011; Amato et al. 2014; Gioia et al. 2014). With particular

reference to the Molise sector of the Apennines, several studies

have been conducted and published by our research group

(Aucelli et al. 2001, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014; Russo

Ermolli et al. 2010; Amato et al. 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014;

Bracone et al. 2012a), while others are still in progress.

Particularly, the internal, south-western sector of the Molise

region, including the Matese, Montagnola di Frosolone and

Venafro mountains (Aucelli et al. 2001, 2010, 2012, 2013;

Cesarano et al. 2011) and the intermontane basins of Boiano,

Venafro, Sessano and Isernia (Amato et al. 2011, 2012, 2013,

2014; Aucelli et al. 2014), has been investigated in great detail

(Fig. 1). Instead, the central sector, which is located between

the NE slope of the Montagnola di Frosolone and the Frentani

Mountains (Fig. 1), has been much less studied, apart from

some geological (Lanzafame & Tortorici 1976; Vezzani et al.

2004, 2010) and geomorphological study (Aucelli et al. 2001,

2010). Finally, the north-eastern, coastal sector was mainly

investigated first for petroleum research (Casnedi et al.

1981, 1982; Cello et al. 1989), then subsurface stratigraphic

AMATO, AUCELLI, BRACONE, CESARANO and ROSSKOPF

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2017, 68, 1, 29 – 42

charac

terization of the Pliocene–Pleistocene successions

(Amorosi et al. 2009, 2016; Bracone et al. 2012a, b) and,

finally, in relation to the genesis and evolution of the alluvial

plains of the Trigno and Biferno rivers (Aucelli et al. 2001;

Frezza et al. 2012; D’Amico et al. 2013; Rosskopf & Scorpio

2013; Amorosi et al. 2016).

Available studies to date are integrated by recent, mostly

unpublished geological data acquired during regional field

surveys (Vezzani et al. 2004) and the CARG (Geological

CARtoGraphy) projects (geological maps “Campobasso”,

“Trivento” and “Vasto”) (ISPRA 2010; Pappone et al. 2010;

Calamita et al. 2011; ISPRA 2011a, b; Sgrosso & Naso 2011)

that add important new knowledge on the regional tectono-

stratigraphic setting of the study area.

However, while these studies clarify the main phases of the

stratigraphical and geomorphological evolution of several

sectors of the Molise Apennine, they do not address the com-

parison and correlation between different sectors.

The main objectives of the present paper are to order and

link data coming from different sectors of the Molise Apennine

and to fill major gaps in knowledge on its long-term evolution.

For this purpose, a review and integrated analysis of mainly

geomorphological, stratigraphical, structural and geo-chrono-

logical data (Ar/Ar dating and tephrostratigraphy on tephra

Fig. 1. Geological sketch map showing the distribution of the main tectonic units and Pliocene – Quaternary deposits in the Campania–Molise

portion of the central-southern Apennines.

LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION OF THE MOLISE SECTOR OF THE CENTRAL-SOUTHERN APENNINES, ITALY

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2017, 68, 1, 29 – 42

layers interbedded with the Quaternary successions, palaeo-

magnetism, palynology) was carried out. The results obtained

have allowed us to propose for the first time a model of the

long-term landscape evolution of the Molise sector of the

Apennine chain. In particular, the main phases of the tectonic

and long-term geomorphological evolution of the Molise

Apennines since the Pliocene are detailed along a study

transect that crosses the Molise region, from the Matese

Massif to the Adriatic coast (Fig. 1).

Geological and geomorphological setting

The Molise portion of the central-southern Apennines,

thanks to its diversified geological and morphostructural

features, can be divided into three sectors: a south-western,

a central and a north-eastern sector (hereinafter also named

SW Sector, Central Sector and NE Sector) (Fig. 1).

The SW Sector is dominated by Meso–Cenozoic carbonate

platform and slope-basin units (respectively the Matese and

Montagnola di Frosolone units) and, to a lesser extent, by

upper Miocene siliciclastic foredeep deposits (Molise Flysch,

Pappone et al. 2010) overlying the carbonate units. This sector

is dominated by a mountainous landscape with high mountain

areas including major peaks between 1800 and 2000 m a.s.l.,

and hosts several intermontane basins with floors located

between 300 and 700 m a.s.l. The Central Sector is located

between the north-eastern slope of the Montagnola di

Frosolone and the Frentani Mountains and characterized by

a typical hilly morphology, mainly developed on clayey-marly

limestone successions and siliciclastic deposits belonging to

the Sannio and Molise basin units. The Upper Cretaceous–

Miocene Sannio basin units (originally located to the west of

the Apennine carbonate platform, Patacca et al. 1992) over-

lapped, after the Early Messinian, both the Apennine carbo-

nate platform units and the Molise basin units (Cesarano et al.

2011). The Molise units (Upper Oligocene–Miocene) refer to

the basin domain (Molise basin) that separated the Apennine

carbonate platform domain (Matese-Montagnola di Froso-

lone) to the west from the Apulian carbonate platform domain

to the east, and are made of three distinct tectonic units,

namely Agnone, Tufillo and Daunia (sensu Patacca et al.

1992). The Tufillo and Daunia units largely consist of calca-

reous turbiditic successions of Burdigalian–Tortonian age

(Lirer et al. 2007) that are widespread in the northern and

eastern portions of this sector and appear in the San Biase

area in tectonic windows beneath the Sannio units (Fig. 1).

The Daunia Unit, which represents the outer portions of the

Molise basin, is covered by Pliocene deposits of a wedge- top

basin that are represented by the Tona Formation (Boni et

al. 1969).

Finally, the NE Sector, which stretches between the Frentani

Mountains and the Adriatic coast, is dominated by sedimen-

tary successions made up of clays, sandstones and conglo-

merates from marine and continental environment. These

successions form a Pliocene (Piacenzian p.p.) – Pleistocene

(Gelasian–Ionian) regressive cycle (Bracone et al. 2012b and

references therein) made up, from the bottom to the top, by the

Montesecco Clays, Serracapriola Sands and Campomarino

Conglomerates with the latter being divided into two distinct

sedimentary cycles (Bracone et al. 2012b). This sector is

charac terized by a low relief energy and regular morphology

dominated by NNW–SSE oriented terraced ridges gently

sloping toward the Adriatic coast and the interposed alluvial

coastal plains of the Trigno and Biferno rivers.

The current geological setting of the Molise sector of the

central-southern Apennines is the result of a complex tectonic

evolution that started in the Middle–Late Miocene (Patacca et

al. 1990; Patacca & Scandone 2007 and references therein)

and was characterized by coeval east and north-eastward

thrust stacking during the migration of deformation toward the

Apulian foreland and by hinterland extension due to the ope-

ning of the Tyrrhenian back-arc basin (Channell et al. 1979;

Malinverno & Ryan 1986; Patacca et al. 1990; Hippolyte et al.

1994; Mazzoli et al. 2000). These geodynamic processes were

driven by the passive sinking rollback of the Adriatic-Ionian

lithosphere (Malinverno & Ryan 1986). The Apennine accre-

tionary prism gradually incorporated the tectonostratigraphic

units derived alternatively from the carbonate platform and

basin domains of Mesozoic– Cenozoic age (D’Argenio et al.

1973; Mostardini & Merlini 1986). The timing of orogenic

migration toward the east was constrained by the dating of

thrust-top and foredeep basin deposits which gradually formed

(Casero et al. 1988; Patacca et al. 1990, 1992; Cipollari &

Cosentino 1995). The compressional phases produced a signi-

ficant shortening of the accretionary prism that occurred

through a thin-skinned deformation (e.g., Mostardini &

Merlini 1986; Marsella et al. 1995; Doglioni et al. 1996;

Mazzotti et al. 2000; Patacca & Scandone 2001; Patacca et al.

2007; Scrocca 2010).

Starting from the Early Pliocene, the entire stack of thrust

sheets was already superimposed on the inner edge of the

Apulian platform. The latter, however, underwent shortening

processes through the formation of duplex structures (Mostar-

dini & Merlini 1986) only in the Middle–Late Pliocene.

The deformation of the buried Apulian Platform unit produced

in some cases the development of breaching thrusts that cut

the original roof-thrust, leading to the formation of out-of-

sequence within the roof unit and consequently localized

uplift of the accretionary prism.

Within the Pliocene and Pleistocene p.p. interval (from 3.6

to 1.4 My), the development of wedge-top basins characte-

rized by shallow marine environments occurred on the thrust

sheets (Ascione et al. 2012). Starting from the Early Pleisto-

cene, the internal sectors of the central-southern Apennines

were marginally involved in crustal thinning that affected the

southern Tyrrhenian, with the formation of NE–SW listric

faults bordered by NW–SE oriented strike-slip faults (Casciello

et al. 2006). While the combined activity of these tectonic

structures led to the identification of large Tyrrhenian coastal

depressions and probably promoted the genesis of most of the

intermontane basins located in the internal and axial sectors of

AMATO, AUCELLI, BRACONE, CESARANO and ROSSKOPF

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, 2017, 68, 1, 29 – 42

the central-southern Apennines, the external portions of the

chain remained under the control of thrust tectonics.

During the Middle Pleistocene, the flexural retreat of the

Adriatic plate and tectonic shortening suddenly stopped

(Patacca & Scandone 2001; Ascione et al. 2012). Furthermore,

around 0.7 My the complete detachment of the subducting

slab occurred (Wortel & Spakman 2000). This is reflected in

a general uplift of the whole chain (Cinque et al. 1993;

Hippolyte et al. 1994) and the onset of extensional tectonics,

characterized by a NE-SW sense of extension (Cinque et al.

1993; Hippolyte et al. 1994; Montone et al. 1999) that con-

trolled the landscape response in this chain sector.

Data useful for the long-term morphoevolutive

model

Hereafter, the main geological and geomorphological data

available for the three study sectors are presented, highlighting

the chronological and morpho-stratigraphic markers used to

support the identification of the main stages of the long-term

evolution of the Molise Apennines.

The SW Sector

The current orography and hydrography of this sector is the

result of its complex tectonic-stratigraphic setting, charac-

terized by alternating structural highs (mountain areas) and

lows (alluvial plains and intermontane basins), generally

bounded and intersected by faults, some of which are still

active (Amato et al. 2014).

The most ancient landscape features are located

in the high

mountain areas and represented by gentle erosional landscapes

mainly generated by fluvial and karst processes

(Aucelli et al.

2013).

These erosion surfaces are of varied extent and located

between 1300 and 1800 m a.s.l. in the Matese Mountains and

between 1000 and 1400 m a.s.l. in the Montagnola di Froso-

lone massif, but variously displaced by tectonics and difficult

to group into separate orders.

Although no chronological constraints are available for

these oldest landscape markers, their genesis can probably be

referred to the first phases of morphogenesis that occurred

immediately after the emersion of this sector. Published data

on the beginning of the morphogenesis of the central-southern

Apennines (Bosi et al. 1996; Ascione et al. 1997, 2012, 2014;

Ascione & Cinque 1999; Basili et al. 1999; D’Alessandro et

al. 2003; Schiattarella et al. 2006, 2008; Giano & Schiattarella

2014; Gioia et al. 2014; Miccadei et al. 2014) suggest that its

internal portion gradually emerged during the Pliocene. Parti-

cularly, these authors have demonstrated that the emersion

and, therefore, the beginning of the morphogenesis occurred

gradually from the NW (Abruzzo-Molise sector) to SE (Cam-

pania-Lucania sector), between the Early –Middle Pliocene

and the Lower Pleistocene. This thesis is also supported by

the lack of Pliocene deposits throughout the internal sector

between the Matese, Montagnola di Frosolone and Venafro

mountains as well as within the surrounding intermontane

basins.

The remnants of palaeosurfaces recognized at lower heights

and the Quaternary infills of the major morphostructural

depressions are the most suitable for the reconstruction of the

long-term evolution of the SW Sector. Both the Montagnola di

Frosolone Mountain and the northern slope of the Matese

Massif are rich in such palaeosurface remnants (Fig. 2) that

are the response, as discussed below, to the successions of

tectonic events that occurred in this sector of the chain.

Uplift phases and consequent valley downcutting alternated

with phases of substantial stability of local base levels of

erosion during which fluvial denudational processes prevailed

(valley flank retreat and valley floor widening). Most of the

palaeosurfaces are of erosional origin, cut into the Mesozoic–

Cenozoic bedrock, and only in some cases thin covers of

Quaternary deposits are present. Taking into account their dis-

tribution and height above sea level, these palaeosurfaces were

referred to four distinct orders (Fig. 2): I order (1000 – 900 m),

II order (820 –760 m), III order (680 – 600 m) and IV order

(540 –500 m).

The I order palaeosurface is generally cut into the bedrock

and appears reduced to small and elongated ridges, hanging

ca. 500 m over the Boiano basin floor. Although no chrono-

logical constraints are available for this order, regional

geological-structural and geomorphological data allow us to

tentatively refer its genesis to the Lower Pleistocene. In fact,

close to Campobasso (Fig. 2), this order is cut into the Pliocene

fluvial-transitional succession of the Campobasso (Vezzani et

al. 2004) and M. Vairano Conglomerates (Pappone et al. 2010)

that suggest a post-quem term for its development (Fig. 2b).

The II order palaeosurface, generally of erosional origin, is

locally cut into the fluvial-lacustrine deposits that crop out at

Serra S. Giorgio near S. Massimo and contain tephra layers

that have been recently Ar/Ar dated to 649 ± 21 and 621 ± 6 ky

BP (Di Bucci et al. 2005). This data allows us to refer the

genesis of the II order palaeosurface to the Middle Pleistocene

(Fig. 2b), and more precisely to ca. 600 ky BP.

The III order palaeosurface is mainly constituted by ero-

sional and/or depositional planar surfaces that are found both

along the borders of the Sepino, Boiano and Isernia intermon-

tane basins and the flanks of major valleys (Aucelli et al. 2011,

2014). This III order can also be dated to the Middle Pleisto-

cene, to after 400 ky BP. In fact, some remnants of this order

are cut into fluvial-palustrine deposits cropping out in the

Sessano intermontane basin (SBP, Fig. 2a) that contain a tephra

layer dated by Ar/Ar to 437 ky BP (Russo Ermolli et al. 2010;

Amato et al. 2011).

Finally, the IV order palaeosurface, represented by both

erosional and depositional surfaces, is found along the borders

of the intermontane basins and the major valley flanks at

a few tens of metres above the local base levels. The presence

of the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (15.3 ky BP, Deino et al. 2004)

within the fluvial-marshy succession of the Boiano basin

infilling, allows us to hypothesize for this order a late Upper

Pleistocene age.

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The major structural depressions located in the SW Sector are

grabens or semi-grabens and bordered by generally NW–SE,

NE–SW and E–W oriented high angle faults. Their basin floors

are characterized by a quite flat morphology due to aggra-

dation and are only partly incised by rivers. Infill successions

reach thicknesses of 80 to 240 m (Isernia 80 m, Sessano >80 m,

Venafro >200 m and Boiano 240 m) and are mainly made

of fluvial-marshy and lacustrine deposits with intercalations

of volcaniclastic layers and palaeosols (Amato et al. 2014).

Based on stratigraphic features, several phases of deposition,

favoured by tectonic subsidence, are distinguished.

Collected chronostratigraphic data highlight that the infill

successions directly overly the Miocene and/or Mesozoic bed-

rocks and are made of Lower Pleistocene lacustrine-palustrine

and fluvial marshy deposits and Middle Pleistocene and Upper

Pleistocene–Holocene fluvial marshy and alluvial fan deposits

(Russo Ermolli et al. 2010; Aucelli et al. 2001, Amato et al.

2012, 2013, 2014).

The genesis and early stages of evolution of these basins

occurred under the control of tectonic transtension, while their

further evolution was guided by extension (Fig. 3) that repla-

ced the transtensive regime at the beginning of the Middle

Pleistocene. The subsequent intensification of the extensional

regime, acting along generally NW–SE oriented high angle

faults, caused an increase of subsidence within the basins

that favoured the sedimentation of thick fluvial-marshy

succes sions rich in tephra layers and reworked volcaniclastic

material (Amato et al. 2014), and also caused the terracing

of some portions of the infill successions (Amato et al. 2011,

2014) (Fig. 3). The intensity of tectonic processes seems to be

very high from 0.6 to 0.4 My BP, then gradually decreased

starting from the upper part of the Middle Pleistocene (Amato

et al. 2014). Furthermore, during the late Middle Pleistocene

and the Upper Pleistocene–Holocene, sedimentation was

also controlled by more intense 100 ky cycles climatic

fluctuations.

The Central Sector

The Central Sector is characterized by a hilly morphology

and elevations ranging between 150 m (minimum elevation of

the main valley floors) and 1000 m (maximum height of some

isolated peaks). The prevalence of mostly pelitic rocks (Molise

and Sannio basin units) with scarce to nil permeability has

allowed the development of a dense fluvial network. By flowing

to the Adriatic Sea across the thrust-belt system, the main

rivers (Trigno and Biferno) have incised deep valleys in which

ancient fluvial and slope deposits are practically lacking, high-

lighting that river downcutting and valley widening have

largely prevailed over sedimentation. Therefore, in this sector,

the long-term landscape evolution is essentially indicated by

erosional landforms, as highlighted by Aucelli et al. (2012)

Fig. 2. a — Distribution of the four orders of recognized palaeosurfaces in the SW sector (from Amato et al. 2014, modified); b — table sum-

mary reporting the height a.s.l. of the palaeosurface remnants along the NE slope of the Matese Massif and along the S slope of Montagnola di

Frosolone, their height above the Boiano basin floor (∆h in m) and their age attribution.

LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION OF THE MOLISE SECTOR OF THE CENTRAL-SOUTHERN APENNINES, ITALY

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ridges. Although no chronological data are available for this

order, some morpho-stratigraphical data allow us to hypothe-

size an Early Pleistocene age. In fact, along the NE slopes of

Montagnola di Frosolone, the I order is clearly younger with

respect to the oldest surfaces of the high-mountain area

between 1400 –1000 m a.s.l. that, as mentioned above, are ten-

tatively referred to the Pliocene. Furthermore, in the medium

reaches of the Trigno and Biferno river valleys, the I order

remnants coincide with flat to rounded summit areas including

the major water divides, and close to Campobasso cut the

Pliocene transitional and fluvial deposits of the Campobasso

Conglomerates (Vezzani et al. 2004) and M. Vairano Con-

glomerates (Pappone et al. 2010). These data, given the lack in

this sector of Middle to Upper Pliocene deposits (Casnedi et

al. 1981), most likely can be proposed as post-quem terms in

order to tentatively date the I order palaeosurface, allowing us

to suggest that this sector was already substantially emerged

during the Pliocene.

The II order palaeosurface is represented by remnants both

in summit position and hanging along valley sides, forming

respectively narrow water divides and erosional valley side

glacis (Fig. 4)

This order is correlated to the II order palaeo-

surface recognized in the SW Sector, in the areas around the

Boiano basin that belong to the Adriatic flank of the chain, and

constrained to the first part of the Middle Pleistocene (Aucelli

et al. 2011; Amato et al. 2011, 2014).

Starting from the Middle Pleistocene, the general uplift of

the Apennine chain enhanced fluvial downcutting, which was

also favoured by climatic changes. Valley evolution occurred

through several phases of river incision alternating with phases

of substantial nil incision during which valley flank retreat and

decline due to lateral erosion and slope processes dominated

(Aucelli et al. 2001, 2010, 2012). Consequently, in this sector,

only some relics of valley side glacis and terraced surfaces are

found, hanging some tens of metres above the present valley

floors and forming remnants of the III and IV order palaeo-

surface. Taking into account their present heights above the

valley floors and the supposed former valley gradients they

can be tentatively correlated to the III (680 – 600 m a.s.l.) and

IV (540 –500 m a.s.l.) orders of the well-dated palaeosurfaces

present in the SW Sector and, therefore, constrained between

the Middle and Upper Pleistocene. In particular, the III order

palaeosurface can be constrained to the late Middle Pleisto-

cene on the basis of the age of the SBP palaeosurface of the

very close Sessano Basin (Aucelli et al. 2011; Amato et al.

2011, 2014) dated to ca. 0.3 My BP. The spatial distribution,

aspects and gradients of the III and IV order palaeosurfaces

indicate that the valley axes of the Trigno, Biferno and Fortore

Fig. 4. a — Sketch map showing the distribution of the four orders of palaeosurfaces recognized in the Central Sector of the Molise Apennine;

b — a large relict of the I order palaeosurface forming the top of the local relief in the Trivento area; c and d — examples of major I and II

order palaeosurface remnants.

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rivers had already reached their current position in the Middle

Pleistocene. During the Late Pleistocene, alternating phases of

aggradation and river incision have allowed the development

of some alluvial terraces, now hanging only a few metres

above the current valley floors (Rosskopf & Scorpio 2013;

Sgrosso & Naso 2011).

The NE Sector

The NE Sector extends from the Frentani Mountains (about

40 km from the coast) to the Adriatic Sea (Fig. 5). The internal

portion of this sector corresponds to the outer wedge of the

chain where the Molise basin units crop out. It mainly lies at

400 to 600 m a.s.l., although some peaks located near its inner

margin reach altitudes of up to 900 –1000 m. The external

portion of this sector reaches a maximum elevation of ca.

350 m a.s.l. and corresponds to the foreland area (wedge-top

basin) dominated by the Plio–Pleistocene regressive sedimen-

tary succession (Amorosi et al. 2009).

Within the internal portion, the landscape is dominated by

elongated NW–SE oriented ridges alternating with secondary

river incisions orientated parallel to the tectonic structures of

the chain. Ridges and valley incisions coincide with anticlinal

and synclinal fold structures that are underlain respectively by

calcareous lithologies and clayey terrains. The external por-

tion, instead, is characterized by terraced planar surfaces dis-

sected by fluvial incision that appear wider and better

preserved when underlain by arenaceous and conglomeratic

lithologies.

During the Middle Pliocene–Early Pleistocene time interval,

the internal portion of the NE Sector was affected by thrust

tectonics that determined the growth both of the outer wedge

and the mountain front, while the external portion was still

under marine domain. In the late Early Pleistocene, tectonic

activity caused a further NE shift of the coastline and the depo-

sition of nearshore deposits in the external portion. The transi-

tion from Early to Middle Pleistocene is marked by the last

phase of tectonic activity that also involved the Apennine

frontal thrust, with the ensuing emersion of the entire NE sector

and the instauration of alluvial environments. The following

regional uplift caused river downcutting and promoted the

development of the terraced palaeolandscapes.

Four orders of palaeosurfaces have been distinguished

(Fig. 5a) at altitudes between 10 and 625 m a.s.l. The I order

palaeosurface is a summit erosion surface located at altitudes

ranging from 550 to 625 m and represents the oldest landscape

recognized in this sector (Fig. 5b). Its remnants are largely

concentrated in the internal portion and of limited extension,

with the only exception of the remnant present in the S. Croce

di Magliano area (Fig. 5a). The genesis of this palaeosurface is

related to the reshaping of the mountain front during the Early

Pleistocene and, therefore, is tentatively correlated to the for-

mation of the I order palaeosurface in the Central Sector.

The II order palaeosurface (PS1 in Bracone et al. 2012a),

is located between 225 and 500 m a.s.l. It is cut into the Qc1

sequence, the first sedimentary cycle of the Campomarino

Conglomerates (early Middle Pleistocene, Bracone et al.

2012a), and, therefore, can be attributed to the early Middle

Pleistocene.

The III order palaeosurface (PS2 in Bracone et al. 2012a) is

of depositional origin and found in the external portion of the

NE Sector at altitudes ranging from 75 to 215 m a.s.l. (Fig. 5a

and c). Its remnants are characterized by a N-NE dip and are

larger when compared to the I and II order palaeosurface rem-

nants (Fig. 5a). This palaeosurface coincides with the top of

the palaeosol that closes up the Qc2 sequence, the second sedi-

mentary cycle of the Campomarino Conglomerates (Bracone

et al. 2012a), and, therefore, is Middle Pleistocene in age.

A palaeosol, correlated to the previous one, is present immedia-

tely north of the Molise area, in the Abruzzo and Marche foot-

hills, and dated to MIS 9 (Di Celma et al. 2015), confirming

the Middle Pleistocene age of the III order palaeosurface.

During the second part of the Middle Pleistocene, a genera-

lized regional uplift deactivated the III order palaeosurface

and caused the entrenchment of the river network.

Tectonic uplift along with glacio-eustatic sea level fluctua-

tions deeply controlled processes of valley downcutting and

led to the formation of river terraces and the IV order palaeo-

surface (PS3 in Bracone et al. 2012a) which is located at

elevations of 10 to 60 m a.s.l. Generally, this palaeosurface is

cut into Plio –Pleistocene units, but locally (at 10 m a.s.l.) has

a depositional origin associated with Upper Quaternary near-

shore or transitional deposits. Although no absolute data are

available, the developed chronostratigraphic framework

(Bracone et al. 2012a; Amorosi et al. 2016) allows us to con-

strain the age of this palaeosurface to the Middle–Late

Pleistocene.

As remarked by Amorosi et al. (2016), from 200 –150 ky BP

the main river valleys formed and the glacio-eustatic fluctua-

tions mainly produced their effects in the coastal plains of

the study area. Particularly, in the Biferno valley alternating

glacial and interglacial conditions produced a multiple buried

palaeovalley system formed by alternating phases of valley

incision and filling, as testified by buried river terraces and

a valley infill made up of alluvial, transitional and nearshore

deposits of Late Pleistocene to Holocene age (Amorosi et al.

2016). Especially, transgressive and highstand deposits in the

coastal plain showed a clear transition from alluvial to transi-

tional and marine environments (D’Amico et al. 2013;

Amorosi et al. 2016) during the Holocene transgression.

The long-term landscape evolution of Molise region

Below we discuss the main stages of the tectonic and land-

scape evolution that are reconstructed for the Molise sector of

the central-southern Apennines and schematically illustrated

in Figure 6.

The starting point of our reconstruction is the tectono-strati-

graphic setting acquired by the Molise Apennines due to tec-

tonic compression during Upper Miocene. The latter, in fact,

caused a strong shortening of the accretionary prism. During

AMATO, AUCELLI, BRACONE, CESARANO and ROSSKOPF

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2017, 68, 1, 29 – 42

this phase of shortening, the prism incorporated the sedimen-

tary covers referring to the Mesozoic–Cenozoic palaeogeo-

graphic carbonate platform and basin domains located on top

of the subducting Adriatic plate. Especially the Matese-

Frosolone carbonate platform and the Molise basin units

were incorporated as testified by the Upper Tortonian–Lower

Messinian foredeep deposits (Molise Flysch, Pappone et al.

2010) placed on top of them.

During the Early Pliocene (Fig. 6a) compressive tectonics

led to a complete emersion of the internal sector of the chain

(our SW Sector), while the Pliocene sea still occupied the

remaining part of the Molise Apennines with wedge-top basins

(Tona Formation) placed in the frontal zones of the accretio-

nary prism and connected eastwards to the foredeep domain.

In the Middle–Late Pliocene (Fig. 6b), the migration of the

thrust sheets toward the Adriatic foreland induced the defor-

mation of the buried Apulian units through the development of

duplex structures that caused the thickening of the accretionary

prism. These processes produced the uplift of the chain and the

consequent dismantling of the Sannio Units present on the

roof of the accretionary wedge. These stages of structuring of

the chain determined in the SW Sector the exhumation of

the carbonate successions of the Matese-Frosolone units

(Pappone et al. 2010; Cesarano et al. 2011), and in the Central

Sector the enucleation of the S. Biase structural high (Mazzoli

et al. 2000) which most likely represented the seaward limit of

the Campobasso Conglomerates sedimentation.

The described configuration of the chain and the almost

complete lack of Pliocene deposits above the thrust sheets in

the internal sector leads us to presume that in this period most

of the SW and Central sectors of the chain had already

emerged. Conversely, the internal portion of the NE Sector

was still occupied by wedge-top basins and the external

portion by a foredeep basin.

Starting from the Late Pliocene–Early Pleistocene, the Sannio

nappe on the Matese Massif and Montagnola di Frosolone

Mountain was almost completely eroded, leaving an erosional

landscape, remnants of which constitute the palaeosurfaces

over 1000 m a.s.l.

During the Early Pleistocene (Fig. 6c), due to the onset

of transtensive tectonics, a more complex landscape with

structural highs and lows started to develop in the SW Sector.

In the external portion of the NE Sector, instead, a marine

wedge-top basin and the sedimentation of the Montesecco

Clays persisted.

Particularly, starting from the late Early Pleistocene, the

Molise intermontane basins, poorly drained, started to be

filled with predominantly lacustrine and palustrine deposits.

In the SW and Central sectors and in the internal portion of the

NE Sector, now completely emerged, the I order palaeosurface

started to be shaped. The intermontane basins were still subject

to strong subsidence and continued to accommodate predomi-

nantly palustrine and fluvial-marshy deposits. Meanwhile, in

the internal portion of the NE Sector compression continued to

affect the frontal thrusts of the chain, enhancing the uplift and

tilting of the Montesecco Clays and the formation of erosion

surfaces, while the upper to lower shoreface Serracapriola

Sands deposited in the external portion.

During the Middle Pleistocene (Fig. 6d), starting from ca.

700 ky BP, a NE–SW extensional regime became established

that deeply controlled the further evolution of structural highs

and lows in the SW Sector. This regime was characterized by

at least two important paroxysmal episodes about 600 ky and

400 ky BP that preceded respectively the genesis of the II and

III order palaeosurfaces. Within the intermontane basins, sedi-

mentation gradually became predominantly fluvial-marshy

thanks to the reduction of subsidence rates and the significant

contributions of volcaniclastic deposits produced by several

eruptions of the Roccamonfina volcano. Furthermore, regres-

sive erosion caused the capture of the intermontane basins. As

demonstrated by Amato et al. (2014), the capture of the Boiano

basin occurred between 600 and 400 ky. In the Central Sector,

major geomorphic events are related to the genesis of the

II and III order palaeosurfaces during periods of relatively low

uplift, although within an overall context of general uplift and

consequent valley downcutting. In the NE Sector, the com-

pression at the front of the accretionary prism promoted the

sedimentation of the first cycle of the Campomarino Conglo-

merates, the Qc1 sequence, cut by the II order palaeosurface

during the early Middle Pleistocene. After the deposition of

the second cycle of the Campomarino conglomerates (Qc2),

during a period of substantial tectonic stability, the III order

palaeosurface developed. During the second part of the Middle

Pleistocene, a generalized regional uplift caused the entrench-

ment of the river network and the consequent deactivation of

the III order palaeosurface.

At the beginning of the last considered stage (Late Pleisto-

cene–Holocene, Fig. 6e), the Molise sector of the Apennine

chain had already reached its present setting. Regarding the

SW Sector, among the most significant events are the reduc-

tion of subsidence rates in the intermontane basins and the

genesis of the IV order palaeosurface. Meanwhile, in the

Central Sector the deepening of river valleys and the intensifi-

cation of landslide phenomena along the valley flanks con-

tinued, also favoured by first land cover changes due to human

activities during the Holocene (Rosskopf & Scorpio 2013).

In the external portion of the NE Sector, glacio-eustatic sea

level changes caused repeated changes of the coastline posi-

tion and consequent shifts from continental to littoral environ-

ments as well as the remodelling of the sea cliffs in the areas

of Termoli and Campomarino.

Conclusions

The proposed reconstruction of the long-term landscape

evolution of the Molise sector of the central-southern Apen-

nines is based on the revision of already published data, inte-

grated by some recent data collected by the authors, or not

published or still under examination. The total of available

data allowed us to propose, for the first time, a conceptual

model of the palaeolandscape setting during the Early

AMATO, AUCELLI, BRACONE, CESARANO and ROSSKOPF

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2017, 68, 1, 29 – 42

Pliocene and a reliable synthesis of the landscape evolution of

the Molise Apennines since the Late Pliocene.

The main morpho-evolutionary stages that have occurred

since the Late Pliocene mainly under the control of tectonic

activity have been traced. The principal markers used are the

chrono-stratigraphical records derived from infill successions

of intermontane basins and Plio–Quaternary piggyback and

foredeep successions, as well as the remnants of palaeosur-

faces attributed to four orders at the regional scale and

chro nologically constrained between the Early and Late

Pleistocene. These markers testify to the alternation of phases

of substantial tectonic stability and uplift, allowing to assess

their spatial-temporal distribution along the investigated tran-

sect, and highlighting that the emersion of the chain did not

occur synchronously, but gradually from SW to NE. Espe-

cially, the internal SW Sector was already emerged in the Plio-

cene, while the NE Sector remained largely under the marine

domain until the end of the deposition of the Montesecco

Clays (Lower Pleistocene). Starting from the Middle Pleisto-

cene, the evolution of the Molise area significantly differed

from sector to sector. While the SW Sector was under the

influence of NE–SW oriented extensional tectonics that pro-

moted the further reshaping and widening of the morpho-

structural depressions and their infilling, the Central and the

NE sectors were mainly influenced by general uplift that con-

trolled several cycles of valley floor incision and widening.

Acknowledgements: We are grateful to A. Omran and the

other two anonymous reviewers, to the Editors and the Guest

Editors for their suggestions that have helped us to improve

the manuscript and figures.

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