GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA
, OCTOBER 2016, 67, 5, 495 – 505
doi: 10.1515/geoca-2016-0031
www.geologicacarpathica.com
The Alpine tectonic evolution of the Danube Basin
and its northern periphery (southwestern Slovakia)
JOZEF HÓK
1
, MICHAL KOVÁČ
1
, ONDREJ PELECH
2
, IVANA PEŠKOVÁ
2
,
RASTISLAV VOJTKO
1
and SILVIA KRÁLIKOVÁ
1
1
Department of Geology and Paleontology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská dolina, Ilkovičova 6,
842 15 Bratislava, Slovak Republic; hok@fns.uniba.sk, kovacm@fns.uniba.sk, kralikova@fns.uniba.sk
2
State Geological Institute of Dionýz Štúr, Mlynská dolina 1, 817 04 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
(Manuscript received April 19, 2016; accepted in revised form September 22, 2016)
Abstract: The tectonic evolution of the pre-Cenozoic basement, as well as the Cenozoic structures within the Danube
Basin (DB) and its northern periphery are presented. The lowermost portion of the pre-Cenozoic basement is formed
by the Tatricum Unit which was tectonically affected by the subduction of the Vahicum / Penninicum distal continental
crust during the Turonian. Tectonically disintegrated Tatricum overlaid the post-Turonian to Lower Eocene sediments
that are considered a part of the Vahicum wedge-top basin. These sediments are overthrust with the Fatricum and
Hronicum cover nappes. The Danube Basin Transversal Fault (DBTF) oriented along a NW– SE course divided the
pre-Neogene basement of the DB into two parts. The southwestern part of the DB pre-Neogene basement is eroded to
the crystalline complexes while the Palaeogene and Mesozoic sediments are overlaid by the Neogene deposits on the
northeastern side of the DBTF. The DBTF was activated as a dextral fault during the Late Oligocene – Earliest Miocene.
During the Early Miocene (Karpatian – Early Badenian) it was active as a normal fault. In the Middle – Late Miocene
the dominant tectonic regime with NW – SE oriented extension led to the disintegration of the elevated pre-Neogene
basement under the simple and pure shear mechanisms into several NE – SW oriented horst and graben structures with
successive subsidence generally from west to east. The extensional tectonics with the perpendicular NE – SW
orientation of the S
hmin
persists in the Danube Basin from the ?Middle Pleistocene to the present.
Key words: Western Carpathians, Vahicum, wedge-top basin, pre-Cenozoic basement, palaeostress.
Introduction
The Danube Basin (Podunajská nížina) is situated in the
southwestern part of Slovakia as the northern continuation of
the Pannonian Basin system. The Danube Basin (DB) is geo-
logically divided (Vass et al. 1988) into partial depressions
extending between the horst structures of the pre-Cenozoic
basement (e.g., the Rišňovce Depression) to the north and the
Gabčíkovo Depression to the south. (Fig. 1). Sedimentary
infill of the DB consists of Miocene, Pliocene and Quater-
nary deposits overlying the Hercynian crystalline basement
in the south and the Mesozoic and Palaeogene sediments in
the northern part.
The aim of the contribution is to give an overview of the
tectonic evolution of the DB and its northern margin from the
Cretaceous to the Quaternary. The tectonic reconstruction is
based on both original and published data, including geolo-
gical maps (Began et al. 1984; Harčár & Priechodská 1988;
Ivanička et al. 1998; Nagy et al. 1998; Pristaš et al. 2000;
Maglay et al. 2005; Ivanička et al. 2007; Polák et al. 2011;
Fordinál et al. 2012; Potfaj et al. 2014; Teťák et al. 2015; see
also the official online map at
http://mapserver.geology.sk/
gm50js/
). The original data represent the set of the geologi-
cal, structural and lithostratigraphic data collected, analysed
and synthesized from the areas or localities where informa-
tion were not available or insufficient (e.g., Brezovské
Karpaty Mts.). Alpine tectonic individualization of the
pre-Cenozoic tectonic units, origin and evolution of the
Cenozoic sedimentary domains, geochronological and
thermo chronological (ZFT/AFT) data and the Miocene to
Quaternary stress fields are discussed.
The tectonic evolution of the
pre-Cenozoic basement
The pre-Alpine (Hercynian) structures are poorly pre-
served due to the Alpine structural overprinting. The Hercy-
nian orogeny had the opposite vergence as the Alpine oro-
genesis, namely top generally to SE- S (e.g., Bezák et al.
1997; Ivanička et al. 1998; Polák et al. 2012; Pelech & Hók
2014; Broska & Petrík 2015 and original data).
From the point of view of the Alpine orogeny it is possible
to define several basic tectonic units in the pre-Cenozoic
basement of the DB. The Tatricum is the lowermost tectonic
unit occurring on the surface or directly below the Cenozoic
sediments. It includes Palaeozoic crystalline rocks and their
sedimentary cover mainly of the Mesozoic age. The Tatricum
has been overthrust by the cover nappes of the Fatricum and
Hronicum (Plašienka 2003). The Fatricum is mostly com-
posed of the Mesozoic carbonate sediments. In the Tribeč
Mts. the Fatricum contains also crystalline rocks as a part of
the Veporicum crystalline wedge displaced together with
the Mesozoic (and partially Permian) sediments (Fig. 1).
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The Vahicum (or Váhicum) Unit (Maheľ 1981; Plašienka et
al. 1994; Plašienka 1999) is composed of the Upper Creta-
ceous sedimentary sequence containing olistholiths of the
crystalline basement and the Triassic to Late Cretaceous sedi-
ments cropping out in the Považský Inovec Mts. (Rakús in
Ivanička & Kohút 2011; Pelech et al. 2016a). New results
(Pelech et al. 2016a) document superposition of the Upper
Cretaceous sediments above the Tatricum and suggest their
evolution in a wedge-top basin covering the external zones of
the Internal Western Carpathians (sensu Hók et al. 2014).
The Hronicum contains a Late Palaeozoic volcano-sedimen-
tary sequence and Mesozoic (mostly Triassic) carbonate
sedi ments. The Hronicum represents the uppermost tectonic
unit in the DB area. Besides, the tectonic units already men-
tioned, the Pieniny Klippen Belt sediments (cf. Began et al.
1984; Mišík 1997) crop out on the NW edge of the investi-
gated area (Fig. 1).
The sense of displacement of tectonic units obtained from
the analysis of kinematic indicators is rather uniform with the
top to the NW (Hók et al. 1994, 1998, 2013; Lénárt & Hók
2013 and original data). Some fluctuations (to WNW) were
registered in the Tatricum and Veporicum tectonic units in
the northern portion of the Tribeč Mts. and the Sklené Teplice
Horst (Hók et al. 2013). The exceptions represent structures
with top to the NE directions of the Hronicum nappe iden-
tical in both, the Tribeč Mts. and the Sklené Teplice Horst.
Apart from these areas a similar sense of
displacement was obtained from the
Beckov Castle cliff (Fig. 2). In terms of
current knowledge, it is not possible to
satisfactorily explain this direction of
displacement.
The Tatricum tectonic unit
The oldest Alpine tectonic activity is
reported from the Tatricum. It is 95 Ma
(K/Ar dating, Biely in Kuthan et al.
1963) from the Tatricum cover sequence
while the data from the Fatricum tectoni-
cally affected crystalline yielded 80 Ma
(Ar /Ar dating, Putiš et al. 2009) in the
Tribeč Mts. Folding of the Tatricum with
generally top to the west-northwest
(Fig. 2) before emplacement of the
Fatricum crystalline and sedimentary
sequences (Fig. 3 a, b) was documented
by structural data (Ivanička et al. 1998;
Lénárt & Hók 2013).
The Albian – Cenomanian sediments
of the Tatricum are transgressi
velly
overlain by the Middle Turonian – Santo-
nian sediments and both sedi mentary
sequences are covered by the Fatricum
nappe in the Považský Inovec Mts.
(Pelech et al. 2014; Józsa & Pelech 2014).
Geochronological data from the Upper
Palaeozoic sediments of the Tatricum
cover sequence yielded data between
110 – 90 – 60 Ma (U/Pb data from ura-
nium mineralization, Archangeľskij &
Daniel 1981; Štimel et al. 1984) respec-
tively 100 – 80 – 50 Ma (Ar/Ar data from
white micas, Putiš et al. 2009) from
shear zones in the crystalline rocks
(Fig. 3 c, d). During this phase sinistral
transpression shear zones occurred in the
future Tribeč Mts. gra nite (Fig. 3c; Kráľ
et al. 2002; Lénárt & Hók 2013). These
Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the Danube Basin and surroundings.
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data mirrored deformation of the Tatricum Unit before the
displacement of the Fatricum / Hronicum nappes above the
Tatricum. Occurrences of the Upper Cretaceous sediments in
a discordant position above the Tatricum crystalline base-
ment in the borehole HPJ-1 (Fig. 4; Pelech et al. 2016b) as
well as below the Fatricum and Hronicum (Pelech et al.
2014) prove this conclusion in the Považský Inovec Mts. The
ZFT data of 255 Ma from the Tatricum crystalline basement
of the northern part of the Považský Inovec Mts. can be con-
sidered to be postmetamorphic cooling ages after collapse
and exhumation of the Hercynian orogene. It also points to
the Tatricum pre-Alpine crystalline basement occupying
a rather superficial position during the Cretaceous thrusting
(Fig. 4).
Folding and tectonic displacement of the Tatricum cover
units with the top to the NW during the Turonian, before
emplacement of the Fatricum unit in their tectonic hanging
wall has been documented from the Malé Karpaty Mts.
(Plašienka et al. 1991, 1993). This situation is also readable
on the geological map (cf. Polák et al. 2011).
Based on the above we can conclude that the Tatricum rock
sequences were tectonically imbricated and disintegrated
prior to the emplacement of the Fatricum and Hronicum tec-
tonic units (Fig. 3 a, b) in the DB realm during the Ceno-
manian – Early Turonian (cca 100 – 90 Ma).
The Fatricum and Hronicum tectonic units
Displacement/thrusting of the Fatricum and Hronicum
were dated within the DB territory from 80 Ma to 70 Ma
(Campanian – Maastrichtian; Putiš et al.
2009). This is also confirmed by occur-
rences of the Upper Cretaceous sediments
(Coniacian – ?Eocene) in borehole SBM-1
(Maheľ 1985) and the Middle Turonian to
Santonian sediments in the central part
(Striebornica valley) of the Považský Inovec
Mts. (Józsa & Pelech 2014). Both these
occurrences of the Upper Cretaceous sedi-
ments are situated directly below the Fatri-
cum thrust fault. This situation is slightly
different in northern parts of the Internal
Western Carpathians. Sedimentation of the
Tatricum Mesozoic cover continued in the
Veľká Fatra and Tatry Mts. (Cúlová &
Andrusov 1964; Boorová & Potfaj 1997)
during the Turonian. According to the afore-
mentioned arguments it is possible to con-
clude that the displacement of the Fatricum
and Hronicum nappes was terminated later
within the DB region than in areas located
further to the east
(e.g. Plašienka et al. 1997;
Prokešová et al. 2012).
The Vahicum tectonic unit
Occurrence of the ?Uppermost Cretaceous – Lower Palaeo-
gene sediments (Soták et al. 2013) in the borehole KRS-3
(Fig. 3 e; Fig. 4) corroborates the existence of a sedimentary
basin situated most probably in a piggy-back position atop
the Hronicum Unit (Fig. 3 b, c). This basin can be considered
as a part of the wedge-top basin of the Gosau Group during
the Late Cretaceous – Eocene. The Late Cretaceous – Eocene
wedge-top basin was connected with the subduction of the
Penninic (i.e. Vahic) distal continental crust (Wagreich &
Faupl 1994; Wagreich 1995; Frisch & Gawlick 2003; Schmid
et al. 2004, 2008) extending from the Eastern Alps to the
Western Carpathians (Fig. 3 a, b, c). The docking of the
Internal Western Carpathians tectonic units close to their
present position can be deduced from borehole data and the
transgressive position of the Eggenburgian sediments on top
of the deformed Oligocene – Lowermost Miocene sediments
(Fig. 3 d, e). The borehole LU-1 reached below the Palaeo-
gene and Lower Cretaceous sediments of the Internal Western
Carpathians the Eocene sediments of the External Carpathians
(Flysch Belt) on the northern periphery of the DB (Leško et
al. 1982).
The tectonic evolution during the Cenozoic
Continuous changes of the compression direction of the
palaeostress field orientations from NW – SE to NE – SW are
characteristic for the Late Oligocene to Miocene tectonic
evolution of the DB (c.f. Nemčok et al. 1989; Marko et al.
1991, 1995; Fodor 1995).
Fig. 2. The sense and direction of the tectonic displacement for the Tatricum Unit
(dark grey arrows), the Fatricum (grey arrows) and the Hronicum (white arrows).
The lines indicate the cross-section of the tectonic evolution model in Fig. 3 and Fig. 6.
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Fig. 3. Simplified evolution of the pre-Cenozoic basement of the northern part of the DB (not to scale; for details see text).
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The Late Palaeogene – Early
Neogene tectonics
During the Late Cretaceous
and Palaeogene the Brezovské
Karpaty Mts. area was cove-
red by the sedimentary for-
mations of the Brezová and
Myjava Groups (c.f. Salaj et
al. 1987; Fordinál, Elečko,
Nagy in Polák et al. 2012).
In contrast, the Malé Karpaty
Mts. were evidently exhumed
to the surface and intensi vely
eroded during the Late
Cretaceous. (Köhler & Borza
1984; Michalík 1984; Polák
et al. 2012). It follows the
Brezovské Karpaty Block
(BKB) was most probably
si tu ated in a palaeo geo-
graphic position in relation to
the Malé Karpaty Block
(MKB) different to its
recently posi tion (Köhler et
al. 1993).
The new geological and
structural data of this study
did not confirm the existence
and activity of the ENE – SWS
oriented Dobrá Voda Fault
Zone (sensu Marko et al.
1991; Michalík et al. 1992)
with back thrusting (gene-
rally top to SE) of the Hroni-
cum rock sequence over the
Upper Cretaceous sediments
within the Brezovské Kar-
paty Mts. Continuation of the
Dobrá Voda Fault Zone to the
ENE and SWS is not clear (see fig. 2 in Marko et al. 1991
and Fig. 5), moreover the back thrusting is reported only
from the Malé Karpaty Mts. (see fig. 4 and fig. 6 in Marko
et al. 1990, 1991; Polák et al. 2012). Observed faults are
mostly the normal faults in the Brezovské Karpaty Mts.,
and the age of the Upper Cretaceous sediments were
redefined as the Early Miocene (see Kováč et al. 1991).
The faults with backthrust acti vity were reported, besides
the Malé Karpaty Mts. also from the western margin of
the Považský Inovec Mts. (Ivanička et al. 2007; Pešková &
Hók 2008; Pešková 2011; Pelech & Hók 2014). The activity
of the back thrusts lasted until the Late Oligocene – Earliest
Miocene. It is proved by angular unconformity between
the folded Lower Oligocene sediments and the Lower
Karpatian strata on the northern periphery of the Malé
Karpaty Mts. (Marko et al. 1990). Furthermore, folded and
faulted sediments of the Oligocene – ?Karpatian age are
tectonically incorporated in the Hronicum nappe on the
western margin of the Považský Inovec Mts. (Ivanička et al.
2007; Pelech & Hók 2014; Pelech 2015). Indirect evidence
also comes from the angular unconformity between the
Upper Eocene and the Karpatian sediments in boreholes
(Nižná and Borovce series of boreholes) situated in the
Blatné Depression (Biela 1978). It is supposed that the MKB
was shifted by dextral movement along the so called the
Dobrá Voda Line (sensu Fusán et al. 1987; Ludince fault
sensu Buday 1963; see also Kronome et al. 2014) or the
Danube Basin Transversal Fault (DBTF), which is a new
name for the above mentioned syno nyms to the NW into
the area of the future Vienna Basin during the Late Oligo-
cene – Earliest Miocene. The estimated dextral offset of the
back thrusts along the DBTF is ca. 15 km (Fig. 5).
Fig. 4. Simplified map of the pre-Cenozoic basement of the Danube Basin with important boreholes
and AFT/ZFT data (Kráľ 1977; Kováč et al. 1994; Koroknai et al. 2001; Danišík et al. 2004;
Králiková 2013; Králiková et al. 2016). DBTF — the Danube Basin Transversal Fault was separated
by the Mojmírovce Fault (MF) during the Middle Miocene.
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The prevailing NW – SE oriented compression in the
frontal part of the ancestral Western Carpathians and contem-
porary extension in the NE – SW direction in the internal
zones (Nemčok et al. 1989) reactivated the DBTF as a nor-
mal fault during the Eggenburgian – Early Badenian. South
from the DBTF course the uplifted pre-Cenozoic basement
of the DB was eroded up to the crystalline basement. First
sediments were deposited over the crystalline basement
south of the DBTF during the Middle Badenian.
The Mesozoic and Palaeogene complexes are preserved
only northeast from the DBTF (Fig. 4). The Palaeogene strata
together with a significant portion of the Mesozoic sediments
were most probably removed by exhumation processes in the
central part of the DB during the Oligocene – Earliest
Miocene. This is verified by the absence of these sediments
in boreholes (Biela 1978; Fusán et al. 1987) as well as by the
gradual exhumation of the Tatricum crystalline basement
according to published AFT data of ~ 52 to 20 Ma from the
Malé Karpaty, southern portion of the Považský Inovec, and
Tribeč Mts. (Kráľ 1977; Kováč et al. 1994; Danišík et al.
2004; Králiková 2013; Králiková et al. 2016). Moreover,
the geochronological data are supported by AFT ages of
more than ~ 40 Ma from the easternmost parts of the Eastern
Alps indicating a similar age (Dunkl &
Frisch 2002). At the same time, it points to
the existence of an elevated area between
the compressed front of the Internal
Western Carpathians (forearc basin) and
the retroarc Hungarian Palaeogene Basin
above the Transdanubian Range (Tari et
al. 1993).
The Neogene tectonics
The area of the present DB began to dis-
integrate into NE – SW oriented horst and
graben structures in the Middle Miocene.
This process took place under transtension/
extension tectonic regime with the principal
palaeostress compression oriented in the
N – S to NE – SW direction. (Marko et al.
1991; Fodor 1995; Marko & Kováč 1996;
Nemčok et al. 1998; Hók et al. 1999).
Obtained data indicate successive opening of
the depocentres generally from the west to
the east (Fig. 6). During this time, the
northern part of the Považský Inovec Mts.
was exhumed, indicated by AFT data of
~ 21 to 13 Ma (Danišík et al. 2004; Králiková
et al. 2016). Three main tectonic phases
can be recognized in the tectonic evolution
of the northern periphery of the DB. The first
two phases were connected with simple
shearing in the upper crust (sensu Wernicke
1985), which led to the opening of half-
graben type depressions. A distinct subsi-
dence (Lankreijer et al. 1995) followed by huge accumula-
tion of sediments in the Blatné Depression (up to 2500 m)
was accompanied by north-westward tilting of the pre-
Neogene basement during the Badenian age (c.f. Rybár et
al. 2015). Exhumation of the Tatricum basement and termi-
nation of unroofing of the Veporicum unit operated in the
Tribeč Mts. (Fig. 6a) at the same time (Hók et al. 1999;
Lénárt & Hók 2013).
The second phase is characterized by attenuation of the
simple shear tectonic regime. This process is recorded by
activity of the Majcichov fault (see Bezák et al. 2004)
with significant tilting of the pre-Neogene basement to the
northwest, and accumulation of the Sarmatian sediments
(up to 1500 m) in the Rišňovce Depression (Fig. 6b).
Moreover, the exhumed crystalline basement was sealed
by the Sarmatian deposits in the Komjatice Depression
(e.g., boreholes Ivánka, Biela 1978). The third tectonic phase
can be characterized by pure shear extension (McKenzie
1978) in the Tribeč Mts. and the Komjatice Depression
(Fig. 6c) with presence of the angular disconformity between
the Sarmatian and Pannonian sediments (Kováč et al. 2008,
2011) and symmetrical character of this depression (Hók et
al. 1999).
Fig. 5. Supposed and simplified scenario of the Malé Karpaty block shifting along the
Danube Basin Transversal Fault (DBTF) during the Late Oligocene. The DBTF was
reactivated as a normal fault diping to the NE during the Early Miocene. The DVFZ is
the Dobrá Voda Fault Zone — (sensu Marko et al. 1991).
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The Pliocene - Quaternary tectonics
The extension with the NW – SE oriented principal minimal
palaeostress axis persisted during the Pliocene and Early
Pleistocene (Fig. 7a). Orientation of the minimum component
of the stress field (Shmin) switched from the NW– SE orien-
tation to NE – SW direction most probably during the Middle
Pleistocene (see also Decker et al.
2005). The orientation of the
Shmin in a NE – SW direction
(Fig. 7b) and so parallel to the
Western Carpathians arc (oro-
gen-parallel extension) from the
Late Pleistocene to the present
time (Littva et al. 2015). The
exception is the configuration of
the stress field obtained from the
earthquake focal mechanism
solution in the Blatné Depression
and Brezovské Karpaty Mts.
(Fojtíková et al. 2010; Jechum-
tálová & Bulant 2014).
Conclusion
The main results of the contri-
bution can be summarized as
follow:
The Tatricum Unit tectonically
disintegrated prior to the dis-
placement of the Fatricum and
Hronicum tectonic units in its
hanging-wall. The general direc-
tion sense of tectonic transport of
the Tatricum and Fatricum was to
the west -northwest. The Hroni-
cum Unit was thrust generally in
the same direction except in the
Tribeč Mts. and the Sklené
Teplice Horst (and Beckov castle
cliff) where the sense of move-
ment was to the NE (Fig. 2).
The Upper Cretaceous sedi-
ments transgressively overlay the
deformed basement of the Tatri-
cum and also the Hronicum units
(Fig. 3). These sediments were an
integral part of the wedge-top
basin system continuing from the
Eastern Alps to the Western
Carpathians.
During the Late Oligocene the
Malé Karpaty block shifted
under NW – SE to NNW – SSE
oriented compression to trans-
pression, along the Danube Basin Transversal fault (DBTF)
to the northwest (Fig. 5). Later, during the Early Miocene the
palaeostress regime continually changed from transpression
to transtension. The DBTF and parallel NW – SE
oriented faults were activated generally as normal faults. The
area southwest from the DBTF (in present day coordinates)
was subsequently eroded to the crystalline basement (Fig. 4).
Fig. 6. Successive formation of the Miocene depocentres along the northern periphery of the
Danube Basin (compiled according to Gaža & Beinhauerová 1976, 1977; Gaža et al. 1985;
Zbořil et al. 1987, 1988; Lankreijer et al. 1995; Hók et al. 1999).
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In the Middle Miocene the extension oriented in a NW – SE
direction caused opening of finger-like arranged depressions
on the northeast periphery of the DB (Fig. 6a). The subsi-
dence was induced by the simple shear regime in the upper
crust in the Blatné Depression during the Badenian. Attenua-
tion of the simple shear regime controlled the deposition in
the Rišňovce Depression during the Sarmatian (Fig. 6b) and
the pure shear regime operated in the Komjatice Depression
during the Pannonian (Fig. 6c).
The extensional tectonic re gime with the NW – SE direc-
tion of the Shmin persisted in the DB until the Early Pleisto-
cene. From the ?Middle Pleistocene to present time the
orogen-parallel extension with the Shmin orientation in
a NE – SW direction prevails in the DB area (Fig. 7).
Acknowledgements: The work was financially supported by
the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the
contracts Nos. APPV-0099-11, APVV-0315-12 and APVV
SK HU 2013-0020. We are also thankful to Lászlo Fodor and
Miroslav Bielik who improved the quality of the paper
with their comments and corrections from their review
of the paper.
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