GeolCarp_Vol67_No5_495

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, OCTOBER 2016, 67, 5, 495 – 505

doi: 10.1515/geoca-2016-0031

www.geologicacarpathica.com

The Alpine tectonic evolution of the Danube Basin

and its northern periphery (southwestern Slovakia)

JOZEF HÓK

, MICHAL KOVÁČ

, ONDREJ PELECH

, IVANA PEŠKOVÁ

RASTISLAV VOJTKO

and SILVIA KRÁLIKOVÁ

Department of Geology and Paleontology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynská dolina, Ilkovičova 6,

842 15 Bratislava, Slovak Republic; hok@fns.uniba.sk, kovacm@fns.uniba.sk, kralikova@fns.uniba.sk

State Geological Institute of Dionýz Štúr, Mlynská dolina 1, 817 04 Bratislava, Slovak Republic

(Manuscript received April 19, 2016; accepted in revised form September 22, 2016)

Abstract: The tectonic evolution of the pre-Cenozoic basement, as well as the Cenozoic structures within the Danube

Basin (DB) and its northern periphery are presented. The lowermost portion of the pre-Cenozoic basement is formed

by the Tatricum Unit which was tectonically affected by the subduction of the Vahicum / Penninicum distal continental

crust during the Turonian. Tectonically disintegrated Tatricum overlaid the post-Turonian to Lower Eocene sediments

that are considered a part of the Vahicum wedge-top basin. These sediments are overthrust with the Fatricum and

Hronicum cover nappes. The Danube Basin Transversal Fault (DBTF) oriented along a NW– SE course divided the

pre-Neogene basement of the DB into two parts. The southwestern part of the DB pre-Neogene basement is eroded to

the crystalline complexes while the Palaeogene and Mesozoic sediments are overlaid by the Neogene deposits on the

northeastern side of the DBTF. The DBTF was activated as a dextral fault during the Late Oligocene – Earliest Miocene.

During the Early Miocene (Karpatian – Early Badenian) it was active as a normal fault. In the Middle – Late Miocene

the dominant tectonic regime with NW – SE oriented extension led to the disintegration of the elevated pre-Neogene

basement under the simple and pure shear mechanisms into several NE – SW oriented horst and graben structures with

successive subsidence generally from west to east. The extensional tectonics with the perpendicular NE – SW

orientation of the S

hmin

persists in the Danube Basin from the ?Middle Pleistocene to the present.

Key words: Western Carpathians, Vahicum, wedge-top basin, pre-Cenozoic basement, palaeostress.

Introduction

The Danube Basin (Podunajská nížina) is situated in the

southwestern part of Slovakia as the northern continuation of

the Pannonian Basin system. The Danube Basin (DB) is geo-

logically divided (Vass et al. 1988) into partial depressions

extending between the horst structures of the pre-Cenozoic

basement (e.g., the Rišňovce Depression) to the north and the

Gabčíkovo Depression to the south. (Fig. 1). Sedimentary

infill of the DB consists of Miocene, Pliocene and Quater-

nary deposits overlying the Hercynian crystalline basement

in the south and the Mesozoic and Palaeogene sediments in

the northern part.

The aim of the contribution is to give an overview of the

tectonic evolution of the DB and its northern margin from the

Cretaceous to the Quaternary. The tectonic reconstruction is

based on both original and published data, including geolo-

gical maps (Began et al. 1984; Harčár & Priechodská 1988;

Ivanička et al. 1998; Nagy et al. 1998; Pristaš et al. 2000;

Maglay et al. 2005; Ivanička et al. 2007; Polák et al. 2011;

Fordinál et al. 2012; Potfaj et al. 2014; Teťák et al. 2015; see

also the official online map at

http://mapserver.geology.sk/

gm50js/

). The original data represent the set of the geologi-

cal, structural and lithostratigraphic data collected, analysed

and synthesized from the areas or localities where informa-

tion were not available or insufficient (e.g., Brezovské

Karpaty Mts.). Alpine tectonic individualization of the

pre-Cenozoic tectonic units, origin and evolution of the

Cenozoic sedimentary domains, geochronological and

thermo chronological (ZFT/AFT) data and the Miocene to

Quaternary stress fields are discussed.

The tectonic evolution of the

pre-Cenozoic basement

The pre-Alpine (Hercynian) structures are poorly pre-

served due to the Alpine structural overprinting. The Hercy-

nian orogeny had the opposite vergence as the Alpine oro-

genesis, namely top generally to SE- S (e.g., Bezák et al.

1997; Ivanička et al. 1998; Polák et al. 2012; Pelech & Hók

2014; Broska & Petrík 2015 and original data).

From the point of view of the Alpine orogeny it is possible

to define several basic tectonic units in the pre-Cenozoic

basement of the DB. The Tatricum is the lowermost tectonic

unit occurring on the surface or directly below the Cenozoic

sediments. It includes Palaeozoic crystalline rocks and their

sedimentary cover mainly of the Mesozoic age. The Tatricum

has been overthrust by the cover nappes of the Fatricum and

Hronicum (Plašienka 2003). The Fatricum is mostly com-

posed of the Mesozoic carbonate sediments. In the Tribeč

Mts. the Fatricum contains also crystalline rocks as a part of

the Veporicum crystalline wedge displaced together with

the Mesozoic (and partially Permian) sediments (Fig. 1).

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The Vahicum (or Váhicum) Unit (Maheľ 1981; Plašienka et

al. 1994; Plašienka 1999) is composed of the Upper Creta-

ceous sedimentary sequence containing olistholiths of the

crystalline basement and the Triassic to Late Cretaceous sedi-

ments cropping out in the Považský Inovec Mts. (Rakús in

Ivanička & Kohút 2011; Pelech et al. 2016a). New results

(Pelech et al. 2016a) document superposition of the Upper

Cretaceous sediments above the Tatricum and suggest their

evolution in a wedge-top basin covering the external zones of

the Internal Western Carpathians (sensu Hók et al. 2014).

The Hronicum contains a Late Palaeozoic volcano-sedimen-

tary sequence and Mesozoic (mostly Triassic) carbonate

sedi ments. The Hronicum represents the uppermost tectonic

unit in the DB area. Besides, the tectonic units already men-

tioned, the Pieniny Klippen Belt sediments (cf. Began et al.

1984; Mišík 1997) crop out on the NW edge of the investi-

gated area (Fig. 1).

The sense of displacement of tectonic units obtained from

the analysis of kinematic indicators is rather uniform with the

top to the NW (Hók et al. 1994, 1998, 2013; Lénárt & Hók

2013 and original data). Some fluctuations (to WNW) were

registered in the Tatricum and Veporicum tectonic units in

the northern portion of the Tribeč Mts. and the Sklené Teplice

Horst (Hók et al. 2013). The exceptions represent structures

with top to the NE directions of the Hronicum nappe iden-

tical in both, the Tribeč Mts. and the Sklené Teplice Horst.

Apart from these areas a similar sense of

displacement was obtained from the

Beckov Castle cliff (Fig. 2). In terms of

current knowledge, it is not possible to

satisfactorily explain this direction of

displacement.

The Tatricum tectonic unit

The oldest Alpine tectonic activity is

reported from the Tatricum. It is 95 Ma

(K/Ar dating, Biely in Kuthan et al.

1963) from the Tatricum cover sequence

while the data from the Fatricum tectoni-

cally affected crystalline yielded 80 Ma

(Ar /Ar dating, Putiš et al. 2009) in the

Tribeč Mts. Folding of the Tatricum with

generally top to the west-northwest

(Fig. 2) before emplacement of the

Fatricum crystalline and sedimentary

sequences (Fig. 3 a, b) was documented

by structural data (Ivanička et al. 1998;

Lénárt & Hók 2013).

The Albian – Cenomanian sediments

of the Tatricum are transgressi

velly

overlain by the Middle Turonian – Santo-

nian sediments and both sedi mentary

sequences are covered by the Fatricum

nappe in the Považský Inovec Mts.

(Pelech et al. 2014; Józsa & Pelech 2014).

Geochronological data from the Upper

Palaeozoic sediments of the Tatricum

cover sequence yielded data between

110 – 90 – 60 Ma (U/Pb data from ura-

nium mineralization, Archangeľskij &

Daniel 1981; Štimel et al. 1984) respec-

tively 100 – 80 – 50 Ma (Ar/Ar data from

white micas, Putiš et al. 2009) from

shear zones in the crystalline rocks

(Fig. 3 c, d). During this phase sinistral

transpression shear zones occurred in the

future Tribeč Mts. gra nite (Fig. 3c; Kráľ

et al. 2002; Lénárt & Hók 2013). These

Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the Danube Basin and surroundings.

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data mirrored deformation of the Tatricum Unit before the

displacement of the Fatricum / Hronicum nappes above the

Tatricum. Occurrences of the Upper Cretaceous sediments in

a discordant position above the Tatricum crystalline base-

ment in the borehole HPJ-1 (Fig. 4; Pelech et al. 2016b) as

well as below the Fatricum and Hronicum (Pelech et al.

2014) prove this conclusion in the Považský Inovec Mts. The

ZFT data of 255 Ma from the Tatricum crystalline basement

of the northern part of the Považský Inovec Mts. can be con-

sidered to be postmetamorphic cooling ages after collapse

and exhumation of the Hercynian orogene. It also points to

the Tatricum pre-Alpine crystalline basement occupying

a rather superficial position during the Cretaceous thrusting

(Fig. 4).

Folding and tectonic displacement of the Tatricum cover

units with the top to the NW during the Turonian, before

emplacement of the Fatricum unit in their tectonic hanging

wall has been documented from the Malé Karpaty Mts.

(Plašienka et al. 1991, 1993). This situation is also readable

on the geological map (cf. Polák et al. 2011).

Based on the above we can conclude that the Tatricum rock

sequences were tectonically imbricated and disintegrated

prior to the emplacement of the Fatricum and Hronicum tec-

tonic units (Fig. 3 a, b) in the DB realm during the Ceno-

manian – Early Turonian (cca 100 – 90 Ma).

The Fatricum and Hronicum tectonic units

Displacement/thrusting of the Fatricum and Hronicum

were dated within the DB territory from 80 Ma to 70 Ma

(Campanian – Maastrichtian; Putiš et al.

2009). This is also confirmed by occur-

rences of the Upper Cretaceous sediments

(Coniacian – ?Eocene) in borehole SBM-1

(Maheľ 1985) and the Middle Turonian to

Santonian sediments in the central part

(Striebornica valley) of the Považský Inovec

Mts. (Józsa & Pelech 2014). Both these

occurrences of the Upper Cretaceous sedi-

ments are situated directly below the Fatri-

cum thrust fault. This situation is slightly

different in northern parts of the Internal

Western Carpathians. Sedimentation of the

Tatricum Mesozoic cover continued in the

Veľká Fatra and Tatry Mts. (Cúlová &

Andrusov 1964; Boorová & Potfaj 1997)

during the Turonian. According to the afore-

mentioned arguments it is possible to con-

clude that the displacement of the Fatricum

and Hronicum nappes was terminated later

within the DB region than in areas located

further to the east

(e.g. Plašienka et al. 1997;

Prokešová et al. 2012).

The Vahicum tectonic unit

Occurrence of the ?Uppermost Cretaceous – Lower Palaeo-

gene sediments (Soták et al. 2013) in the borehole KRS-3

(Fig. 3 e; Fig. 4) corroborates the existence of a sedimentary

basin situated most probably in a piggy-back position atop

the Hronicum Unit (Fig. 3 b, c). This basin can be considered

as a part of the wedge-top basin of the Gosau Group during

the Late Cretaceous – Eocene. The Late Cretaceous – Eocene

wedge-top basin was connected with the subduction of the

Penninic (i.e. Vahic) distal continental crust (Wagreich &

Faupl 1994; Wagreich 1995; Frisch & Gawlick 2003; Schmid

et al. 2004, 2008) extending from the Eastern Alps to the

Western Carpathians (Fig. 3 a, b, c). The docking of the

Internal Western Carpathians tectonic units close to their

present position can be deduced from borehole data and the

transgressive position of the Eggenburgian sediments on top

of the deformed Oligocene – Lowermost Miocene sediments

(Fig. 3 d, e). The borehole LU-1 reached below the Palaeo-

gene and Lower Cretaceous sediments of the Internal Western

Carpathians the Eocene sediments of the External Carpathians

(Flysch Belt) on the northern periphery of the DB (Leško et

al. 1982).

The tectonic evolution during the Cenozoic

Continuous changes of the compression direction of the

palaeostress field orientations from NW – SE to NE – SW are

characteristic for the Late Oligocene to Miocene tectonic

evolution of the DB (c.f. Nemčok et al. 1989; Marko et al.

1991, 1995; Fodor 1995).

Fig. 2. The sense and direction of the tectonic displacement for the Tatricum Unit

(dark grey arrows), the Fatricum (grey arrows) and the Hronicum (white arrows).

The lines indicate the cross-section of the tectonic evolution model in Fig. 3 and Fig. 6.

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The Late Palaeogene – Early

Neogene tectonics

During the Late Cretaceous

and Palaeogene the Brezovské

Karpaty Mts. area was cove-

red by the sedimentary for-

mations of the Brezová and

Myjava Groups (c.f. Salaj et

al. 1987; Fordinál, Elečko,

Nagy in Polák et al. 2012).

In contrast, the Malé Karpaty

Mts. were evidently exhumed

to the surface and intensi vely

eroded during the Late

Cretaceous. (Köhler & Borza

1984; Michalík 1984; Polák

et al. 2012). It follows the

Brezovské Karpaty Block

(BKB) was most probably

si tu ated in a palaeo geo-

graphic position in relation to

the Malé Karpaty Block

(MKB) different to its

recently posi tion (Köhler et

al. 1993).

The new geological and

structural data of this study

did not confirm the existence

and activity of the ENE – SWS

oriented Dobrá Voda Fault

Zone (sensu Marko et al.

1991; Michalík et al. 1992)

with back thrusting (gene-

rally top to SE) of the Hroni-

cum rock sequence over the

Upper Cretaceous sediments

within the Brezovské Kar-

paty Mts. Continuation of the

Dobrá Voda Fault Zone to the

ENE and SWS is not clear (see fig. 2 in Marko et al. 1991

and Fig. 5), moreover the back thrusting is reported only

from the Malé Karpaty Mts. (see fig. 4 and fig. 6 in Marko

et al. 1990, 1991; Polák et al. 2012). Observed faults are

mostly the normal faults in the Brezovské Karpaty Mts.,

and the age of the Upper Cretaceous sediments were

redefined as the Early Miocene (see Kováč et al. 1991).

The faults with backthrust acti vity were reported, besides

the Malé Karpaty Mts. also from the western margin of

the Považský Inovec Mts. (Ivanička et al. 2007; Pešková &

Hók 2008; Pešková 2011; Pelech & Hók 2014). The activity

of the back thrusts lasted until the Late Oligocene – Earliest

Miocene. It is proved by angular unconformity between

the folded Lower Oligocene sediments and the Lower

Karpatian strata on the northern periphery of the Malé

Karpaty Mts. (Marko et al. 1990). Furthermore, folded and

faulted sediments of the Oligocene – ?Karpatian age are

tectonically incorporated in the Hronicum nappe on the

western margin of the Považský Inovec Mts. (Ivanička et al.

2007; Pelech & Hók 2014; Pelech 2015). Indirect evidence

also comes from the angular unconformity between the

Upper Eocene and the Karpatian sediments in boreholes

(Nižná and Borovce series of boreholes) situated in the

Blatné Depression (Biela 1978). It is supposed that the MKB

was shifted by dextral movement along the so called the

Dobrá Voda Line (sensu Fusán et al. 1987; Ludince fault

sensu Buday 1963; see also Kronome et al. 2014) or the

Danube Basin Transversal Fault (DBTF), which is a new

name for the above mentioned syno nyms to the NW into

the area of the future Vienna Basin during the Late Oligo-

cene – Earliest Miocene. The estimated dextral offset of the

back thrusts along the DBTF is ca. 15 km (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4. Simplified map of the pre-Cenozoic basement of the Danube Basin with important boreholes

and AFT/ZFT data (Kráľ 1977; Kováč et al. 1994; Koroknai et al. 2001; Danišík et al. 2004;

Králiková 2013; Králiková et al. 2016). DBTF — the Danube Basin Transversal Fault was separated

by the Mojmírovce Fault (MF) during the Middle Miocene.

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The prevailing NW – SE oriented compression in the

frontal part of the ancestral Western Carpathians and contem-

porary extension in the NE – SW direction in the internal

zones (Nemčok et al. 1989) reactivated the DBTF as a nor-

mal fault during the Eggenburgian – Early Badenian. South

from the DBTF course the uplifted pre-Cenozoic basement

of the DB was eroded up to the crystalline basement. First

sediments were deposited over the crystalline basement

south of the DBTF during the Middle Badenian.

The Mesozoic and Palaeogene complexes are preserved

only northeast from the DBTF (Fig. 4). The Palaeogene strata

together with a significant portion of the Mesozoic sediments

were most probably removed by exhumation processes in the

central part of the DB during the Oligocene – Earliest

Miocene. This is verified by the absence of these sediments

in boreholes (Biela 1978; Fusán et al. 1987) as well as by the

gradual exhumation of the Tatricum crystalline basement

according to published AFT data of ~ 52 to 20 Ma from the

Malé Karpaty, southern portion of the Považský Inovec, and

Tribeč Mts. (Kráľ 1977; Kováč et al. 1994; Danišík et al.

2004; Králiková 2013; Králiková et al. 2016). Moreover,

the geochronological data are supported by AFT ages of

more than ~ 40 Ma from the easternmost parts of the Eastern

Alps indicating a similar age (Dunkl &

Frisch 2002). At the same time, it points to

the existence of an elevated area between

the compressed front of the Internal

Western Carpathians (forearc basin) and

the retroarc Hungarian Palaeogene Basin

above the Transdanubian Range (Tari et

al. 1993).

The Neogene tectonics

The area of the present DB began to dis-

integrate into NE – SW oriented horst and

graben structures in the Middle Miocene.

This process took place under transtension/

extension tectonic regime with the principal

palaeostress compression oriented in the

N – S to NE – SW direction. (Marko et al.

1991; Fodor 1995; Marko & Kováč 1996;

Nemčok et al. 1998; Hók et al. 1999).

Obtained data indicate successive opening of

the depocentres generally from the west to

the east (Fig. 6). During this time, the

northern part of the Považský Inovec Mts.

was exhumed, indicated by AFT data of

~ 21 to 13 Ma (Danišík et al. 2004; Králiková

et al. 2016). Three main tectonic phases

can be recognized in the tectonic evolution

of the northern periphery of the DB. The first

two phases were connected with simple

shearing in the upper crust (sensu Wernicke

1985), which led to the opening of half-

graben type depressions. A distinct subsi-

dence (Lankreijer et al. 1995) followed by huge accumula-

tion of sediments in the Blatné Depression (up to 2500 m)

was accompanied by north-westward tilting of the pre-

Neogene basement during the Badenian age (c.f. Rybár et

al. 2015). Exhumation of the Tatricum basement and termi-

nation of unroofing of the Veporicum unit operated in the

Tribeč Mts. (Fig. 6a) at the same time (Hók et al. 1999;

Lénárt & Hók 2013).

The second phase is characterized by attenuation of the

simple shear tectonic regime. This process is recorded by

activity of the Majcichov fault (see Bezák et al. 2004)

with significant tilting of the pre-Neogene basement to the

northwest, and accumulation of the Sarmatian sediments

(up to 1500 m) in the Rišňovce Depression (Fig. 6b).

Moreover, the exhumed crystalline basement was sealed

by the Sarmatian deposits in the Komjatice Depression

(e.g., boreholes Ivánka, Biela 1978). The third tectonic phase

can be characterized by pure shear extension (McKenzie

1978) in the Tribeč Mts. and the Komjatice Depression

(Fig. 6c) with presence of the angular disconformity between

the Sarmatian and Pannonian sediments (Kováč et al. 2008,

2011) and symmetrical character of this depression (Hók et

al. 1999).

Fig. 5. Supposed and simplified scenario of the Malé Karpaty block shifting along the

Danube Basin Transversal Fault (DBTF) during the Late Oligocene. The DBTF was

reactivated as a normal fault diping to the NE during the Early Miocene. The DVFZ is

the Dobrá Voda Fault Zone — (sensu Marko et al. 1991).

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The Pliocene - Quaternary tectonics

The extension with the NW – SE oriented principal minimal

palaeostress axis persisted during the Pliocene and Early

Pleistocene (Fig. 7a). Orientation of the minimum component

of the stress field (Shmin) switched from the NW– SE orien-

tation to NE – SW direction most probably during the Middle

Pleistocene (see also Decker et al.

2005). The orientation of the

Shmin in a NE – SW direction

(Fig. 7b) and so parallel to the

Western Carpathians arc (oro-

gen-parallel extension) from the

Late Pleistocene to the present

time (Littva et al. 2015). The

exception is the configuration of

the stress field obtained from the

earthquake focal mechanism

solution in the Blatné Depression

and Brezovské Karpaty Mts.

(Fojtíková et al. 2010; Jechum-

tálová & Bulant 2014).

Conclusion

The main results of the contri-

bution can be summarized as

follow:

The Tatricum Unit tectonically

disintegrated prior to the dis-

placement of the Fatricum and

Hronicum tectonic units in its

hanging-wall. The general direc-

tion sense of tectonic transport of

the Tatricum and Fatricum was to

the west -northwest. The Hroni-

cum Unit was thrust generally in

the same direction except in the

Tribeč Mts. and the Sklené

Teplice Horst (and Beckov castle

cliff) where the sense of move-

ment was to the NE (Fig. 2).

The Upper Cretaceous sedi-

ments transgressively overlay the

deformed basement of the Tatri-

cum and also the Hronicum units

(Fig. 3). These sediments were an

integral part of the wedge-top

basin system continuing from the

Eastern Alps to the Western

Carpathians.

During the Late Oligocene the

Malé Karpaty block shifted

under NW – SE to NNW – SSE

oriented compression to trans-

pression, along the Danube Basin Transversal fault (DBTF)

to the northwest (Fig. 5). Later, during the Early Miocene the

palaeostress regime continually changed from transpression

to transtension. The DBTF and parallel NW – SE

oriented faults were activated generally as normal faults. The

area southwest from the DBTF (in present day coordinates)

was subsequently eroded to the crystalline basement (Fig. 4).

Fig. 6. Successive formation of the Miocene depocentres along the northern periphery of the

Danube Basin (compiled according to Gaža & Beinhauerová 1976, 1977; Gaža et al. 1985;

Zbořil et al. 1987, 1988; Lankreijer et al. 1995; Hók et al. 1999).

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In the Middle Miocene the extension oriented in a NW – SE

direction caused opening of finger-like arranged depressions

on the northeast periphery of the DB (Fig. 6a). The subsi-

dence was induced by the simple shear regime in the upper

crust in the Blatné Depression during the Badenian. Attenua-

tion of the simple shear regime controlled the deposition in

the Rišňovce Depression during the Sarmatian (Fig. 6b) and

the pure shear regime operated in the Komjatice Depression

during the Pannonian (Fig. 6c).

The extensional tectonic re gime with the NW – SE direc-

tion of the Shmin persisted in the DB until the Early Pleisto-

cene. From the ?Middle Pleistocene to present time the

orogen-parallel extension with the Shmin orientation in

a NE – SW direction prevails in the DB area (Fig. 7).

Acknowledgements: The work was financially supported by

the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the

contracts Nos. APPV-0099-11, APVV-0315-12 and APVV

SK HU 2013-0020. We are also thankful to Lászlo Fodor and

Miroslav Bielik who improved the quality of the paper

with their comments and corrections from their review

of the paper.

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