GeolCarp_Vol67_No4_403

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, AUGUST 2016, 67, 4, 403–414

doi: 10.1515/geoca-2016-0025

www.geologicacarpathica.com

The Ankara Mélange: an indicator of Tethyan

evolution of Anatolia

ÜNER ÇAKIR

and TIJEN ÜNER

Hacettepe University Geological Engineering Department, Ankara-Turkey; ucakir@hacettepe.edu.tr

Yüzüncü Y l University, Geological Engineering Department, Van-Turkey

(Manuscript received December 31, 2015; accepted in revised form June 7, 2016)

Abstract: The Ankara Mélange is a complex formed by imbricated slices of limestone block mélanges (Karakaya and
Hisarl kaya Formations), Neotethyan ophiolites (Eldivan, Ahlat and Edige ophiolites), post-ophiolitic cover units
(Mart and Kavak formations) and Tectonic Mélange Unit (Hisarköy Formation or Dereköy Mélange). The Karakaya
and Hisarl kaya formations are roughly similar and consist mainly of limestone block mélange. Nevertheless, they
represent some important geological differences indicating different geological evolution. Consequently, the Karakaya
and Hisarl kaya formations are interpreted as Eurasian and Gondwanian marginal units formed by fragmentation of the
Gondwanian carbonate platform during the continental rifting of the Neotethys in the Middle Triassic time. During the
latest Triassic, Neotethyan lithosphere began to subduct beneath the Eurasian continent and caused intense deforma-
tion of the marginal units. The Eldivan, Ahlat and Edige ophiolites represent different fragments of the Neotethyan
oceanic lithosphere emplaced onto the Gondwanian margin during the Albian–Aptian, middle Turonian and middle
Campanian, respectively. The Eldivan Ophiolite is a NE–SW trending and a nearly complete assemblage composed,
from bottom to top, of a volcanic-sedimentary unit, a metamorphic unit, peridotite tectonites, cumulates and sheeted
dykes. The Eldivan Ophiolite is unconformably covered by Cenomanian–Lower Turonian sedimentary unit.
The Eldivan Ophiolite is overthrust by the Ahlat Ophiolite in the north and Edige Ophiolite in the west. The Ahlat
ophiolite is an east–west oriented assemblage comprised of volcanic-sedimentary unit, metamorphic unit, peridotite
tectonites and cumulates. The Edige Ophiolite consists of a volcanic-sedimentary unit, peridotite tectonites, dunite,
wherlite, pyro xenite and gabbro cumulates. The Tectonic Mélange Unit is a chaotic formation of various blocks
derived from ophio lites, from the Karakaya and Hisarl kaya formations and from post-ophiolitic sedimentary units. It was
formed during the collision between Anatolian Promontory and Eurasian Continent in the middle Campanian time.

Keywords: Ankara Mélange, Neotethys, geodynamic evolution, Anatolia, Turkey.

Introduction

Anatolia is an east–west oriented peninsula principally
formed by the collision of the Gondwanian and Eurasian
continents (Fig. 1). During Mesozoic times, the Tethyan
Ocean formed a gulf towards the west between the two con-
tinents. Various hypotheses have been suggested on the shape
and the evolution of the Tethyan embayment including single
or multi-branched Tethys; opening and closure times of the
Neotethyan Ocean; as well as the time and the polarity of the
Tethyan subduction (Ricou et al. 1975; Bijou-Duval et al.
1977; engör & Y lmaz 1981; Knipper et al. 1986; Okay &
Tüysüz 1999; Stamp i 2000; Okay et al. 2002; Robertson
2002; Çak r 2009).

The suggestion of various hypotheses and models are

probably due to the choice of unsuitable formations as geo-
dynamical indicators. Consequently, a synthesis from the
appropriate formation is strongly needed. The Ankara
Mélange composed of ophiolites and marginal formations is
regarded as a key formation for interpreting the geological
evolution of Anatolia.

This study evaluates the actual geological data and reinter-

prets former ones (Norman 1972, 1973, 1985; Batman 1978,
1981; Çapan et al. 1983; Akyürek et al. 1984, 1996;

Hakyemez et al. 1986; Koçyi it 1987, 1991; Tankut 1990;
Dilek & Thy 2006; Çelik et al. 2011, 2013; Rojay 2013;
Sar fak o lu et al. 2014) obtained from the Ankara Mélange
and proposes a new synthetic model.

Geological characteristics of the Ankara Mélange

The Ankara Mélange is situated in the central part of the

zmir-Ankara-Erzincan suture zone, around Ankara and

Çank r cities, between Haymana and Korgun towns with
160 km in length and 50 km in width (Fig. 2).

It is a complex formed by imbricated slices of limestone

block mélanges (Karakaya and Hisarl kaya Formations),
Neotethyan ophiolites (Eldivan, Ahlat and Edige ophiolites),
post-ophiolitic cover units (Mart and Kavak formations) and
Tectonic Mélange Unit (Fig. 3).

Therefore the Ankara Mélange includes eight different

units represented by three chaotic complexes (Karakaya,
Hisarl kaya and Hisarköy formations) according to the
mélange definition of Festa et al. (2010, 2012), three ophio-
lites (Eldivan, Ahlat and Edige Ophiolites) and two
post-ophiolitic sedimentary units (Mart and Kavak
formations).

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Fig. 1.

Position of the

Ankara Mélange and

Anatolian Ophiolites within the

Aegean,

Anatolian and

Arabian Promontories in a simpli

ed geological map of

urkey (modi

ed from Çak

r, 2009).

1 — Ophiolite;

— Karakaya Formation;

— Hisarl

kaya Formation;

4 — Basement rocks belonging to Eurasian Continent during the Palaeotethyan and Neotethyan period;

5 — Basement

rocks belonging to Gondwanian Continent during the Palaeotethyan period and Eurasian Continent during the Neotethyan period;

6 — Basement rocks belonging to Gondwanian Continent during

the Palaeotethyan and Neotethyan period;

7 — Palaeotethyan suture;

8 —

ardar

-Küre suture;

9 — Neotethyan suture;

— Sutures between

Aegean-Anatolian-Arabian promontories;

— Elaz

and Hazar sutures;

— Maden suture;

—

Thrust front;

— Fault.

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THE ANKARA MÉLANGE — AN INDICATOR OF TETHYAN EVOLUTION OF ANATOLIA

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, 2016, 67, 4, 403–414

The Karakaya and Hisarl kaya formations are tectonosedi-

mentary chaotic complex situated on both sides of the ophio-
lites. They were formed during the rifting of the Neotethyan
ocean in the Middle Triassic by fragmentation of

a Gondwanian carbonate plat-
form and evolved differently.

The Eldivan, Ahlat and

Edige ophiolites represent
three different fragments of
the Neotethyan oceanic litho-
sphere emplaced onto the
Anatolian Promontory of the
Gondwanian continent during
Albian–Aptian, Middle Turo-
nian and Middle Campanian
times respectively.

The Mart and Kavak for-

mations are post-ophiolitic
series formed during Ceno-
manian–lower Turonian and
Upper Turonian–Lower Cam-
panian times, respectively.

The Tectonic Mélange Unit

(Hisarköy Formation or Dere-
köy Mélange) is a tectonic
chaotic complex which con-
tains the fragments of the
Karakaya Formation, Hisar-
l kaya Formation, Lalelik for-
mation, ophiolites, Mart and
Kavak formations.

Consequently the main

characteristic of the Ankara
Mélange is the close relation-
ships between the ophiolites
and the marginal formations
represented mainly by lime-
stone block mélanges. The
ophiolites and their covers are
sandwiched between the two
limestone block mélanges,
Karakaya Formation at the
top (Fig. 4) and Hisarl kaya
Formation at the bottom
(Fig. 5).

Karakaya Formation

The Karakaya Formation

consists of the limestone
block mélange at the top and
the metamorphic unit at the
bottom.

The metamorphic unit is

composed of thinly foliated
and strongly folded phyllites

and schists. The mineralogical assemblage containing chlo-
rite, sericite, albite, quartz, calcite, epidote, actinolite, glau-
cophane and graphite indicates a low-temperature/high-pres-
sure metamorphism. The ophiolitic blocks observed

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Ankara Mélange (synthesized from Batman 1978, 1981; Akyürek et al.
1984; Koçyi it 1987, 1991, 2013; Gökalp1999; Üner,2010; Çak r & Üner 2014). GONDWANIAN
UNITS: 1 — K r ehir Granitoides; (Late Cretaceous); 2 — Lalelik Formation (Upper Jurassic–Lower
Cretaceous limestone-claystone cover unit of the Hisarl kaya Formation); 3 — Hisarl kaya Formation
(Middle–Upper Triassic limestone block mélange); 4 — K r ehir metamorphites (Palaeozoic–Mesozoic
basement unit). OPHIOLITIC UNITS: Edige Ophiolite: 5 — cumulates (Late Cretaceous); 6 — peri-
dotite tectonites (late Cretaceous); 7 — radiolaritic series (Late Triassic–Late Cretaceous); Ahlat
Ophiolite: 8 — tectonites (Late Cretaceous); 9 — radiolaritic series (Late Triassic–Early Turonian);
Eldivan Ophiolite: 10 — sheeted dyke complex (Middle–Late Jurassic); 11 — cumulates (Middle–
Late Jurassic); 12 — tectonites (Middle–Late Jurassic); 13 — metamorphic unit (Middle Jurassic);
14 — radiolaritic series (Late Triassic–Barremian). EURASIAN UNITS: 15 — Ankara Group (Lower
Jurassic–lower Campanian cover unit of the Karakaya formation); 16 — limestone block mélange
(Middle–Late Triassic); 17 — epimetamorphic unit (Lower Triassic); POST-OPHIOLITIC UNITS:
18 — Memlik, Maltepe and Yuva formations (middle Campanian to recent); 19 — Kavak Formation
(late Turonian–Maastrichtian cover unit of the Ahlat Ophiolite); 20 — Mart Formation (Cenomanian–
early Turonian cover unit of the Eldivan Ophiolite); TECTONIC MÉLANGE UNIT: 21 — Hisarköy
or Dereköy formations (middle Campanian).

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northeast of the Hasano lan and Çubuk region were affected
by a similar deformation style. The fossils found in the phyl-
lites (Meandrospira pusilla, Earlandia tintinniformis) indi-
cate the Early Triassic age (Akyürek et al. 1984). The meta-
morphic unit is cut by isolated diabase dykes.

The limestone block mélange consists mainly of shallow

marine limestones blocks surrounded by a matrix of grey-
wacke, siltstone and shale. Furthermore some blocks of grey-
wacke-shale alternation, radiolarite-chert-shale-limestone
alternation and rare ophiolitic rocks are also observed (Nor-
man 1972, 1973; Koçyi it 1991). Limestone blocks have
various sizes ranging from a few metres to hundreds of
metres, and contain characteristic fossils of Carboniferous,
Permian and Triassic ages (Bilgütay 1968; Koçyi it 1987,
1991). Alkaline spilitic basalts occur at different parts of the
limestone block mélange generally as pillow lavas alternat-
ing with limestones, shales and radiolarian cherts of Anisian
age (Koçyi it 1987; Floyd 1993; Say t 2005) and also as thin
veins surrounding and cutting the limestone blocks. The
major part of the matrix represented by graywackes does not
contain any fossils, but the matrix formed by the alternation
of fine layered sandstones, siltstones and shales yield fossils
indicating an Anisian age (Bilgütay 1968; Koçyi it 1987).

The metamorphic unit passes into the limestone block

mélange toward the top generally with the appearance of the

limestone blocks within the matrix of siltstone, sandstone
and conglomerate. This situation is well observed in the
southern part of Ankara. The metamorphic unit also passes
laterally towards the southeast, into limestone block mélange.
Nevertheless, the metamorphic unit overthrusts the limestone
block mélange around Kalecik and Hasano lan villages to
the east of Ankara city. The overthrust of the metamorphic
unit onto the limestone block mélange should have occurred
in the Late Triassic as the metamorphic unit overlies the Mid-
dle Triassic (Anisian) levels of the limestone block mélange
and both units were covered by the Lower Jurassic to Upper
Cretaceous sedimentary formations (Ankara Group) with an
angular unconformity.

The Ankara Group is a thick sedimentary sequence

( 2000 m) ranging from the Early Jurassic (Upper Hettang-
ian) to Upper Cretaceous (Lower Campanian). From bottom
to top the Ankara Group is composed of conglomerates, shal-
low marine clastics with intercalation of Rosso Ammonitico
facies carbonates, fine-grained clastics, sedimentary mélange
and fine grained clastics (Koçyi it 1987).

The Hisarl kaya Formation consist mainly of limestone

block mélange in the upper levels, conglomerate, sandstone

Fig. 3. Geological sections and emplacements of the main Ankara Mélange units between the Albian–Aptian and Middle Campanian times.
1 — Cover unit of the Karakaya Formation (Ankara group); 2 — Cover units of the Eldivan and Ahlat Ophiolites (Mart and Kavak forma-
tions); 3 — Cover unit of the Hisarl kaya Formation (Lalelik Formation); 4 — Limestone block mélanges; 5 — Lower unit of the Hisarl -
kaya Formation (conglomerate, sandstone and shale); 6 — Lower unit of the Karakaya Formation (phyllites and schists); 7 — Isolated
diabase dykes; 8 — Sheeted diabase dykes; 9 — Cumulates (dunite, wherlite, pyroxenite, gabbro, diorite, plagio granite); 10 — Peridotite
tectonites (harzburgite, dunite); 11 — Ophiolitic metamorphic rocks; 12 — Radio laritic series.

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and shale alternations at middle levels and dark grey shales at
lower levels (Fig. 3). It crops out well in the vicinity of Dere-
köy and Develi villages at the north of the Haymana town.
No fossils are observed in shales and sandstones. Limestone
blocks have metric and decametric sizes and contain some

fossils of the Carboniferous,
Permian and Triassic ages (Erol
1956; Batman 1978). Mafic dykes
occur at different levels.

The Hisarl kaya Formation is

unconformably covered by the
Lalelik Formation which is
formed from bottom to top by
layered micritic limestones
(>220 m) with chert intercala-
tions and by red or grey coloured
and well laminated claystone
(>91 m) with limestone and chert
intercalations (Batman 1978).
Fossil data indicates the Late
Jurassic age (Tithonian) at lower
levels. Consequently, the top lev-
els were estimated as Lower Cre-
taceous (Batman 1978).

In the Northeast of Haymana

town, around Dereköy and Deveci
villages, the Lalelik Formation is
overthrust by the Tectonic
Mélange Unit (Dereköy Mélange)
(Fig. 5).

Ophiolites

Ophiolites of the Ankara

Mélange are represented by three
different fragments of the Neo-
tethyan oceanic lithosphere.
These are the Eldivan, Ahlat and
Edige ophiolites obducted onto
the Anatolian promontory of the
Gondwanian continent in the
Albian–Aptian, Middle Turonian
and Middle Campa

nian times,

respectively.

Eldivan Ophiolite

The Eldivan Ophiolite is

a nearly complete assemblage
composed of volcanic-sedimen-
tary unit (radiolaritic series),
meta morphic unit, peridotite tec-
tonites (harzburgites, dunites),
cumulates (duni

tes, wherlites,

pyroxenites, gabbros, diorites,
plagiogranites) and sheeted

dykes (Fig. 3).

The volcanic-sedimentary unit outcrops largely under the

peridotite tectonites (Akyürek 1981; Üner 2010; Üner &
Çak r 2011; Üner et al. 2014). It is composed of thin layered
sedimentary rocks such as red coloured radiolarian cherts,

Fig. 4. View of the limestone block mélange (Karakaya Formation) overthrusting the radio laritic
series. The contact with the Edige Ophiolite is covered by young sediments. Southwest of
Karacahasan village.

Fig. 5. View of Dereköy Mélange (tectonic mélange) overthrusting the Lalelik Formation. West of
Develi village.

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red or green coloured shales, pelagic limestones and alkali
basalts. The lower levels contain pink coloured limestone
blocks with chert interbeds, surrounded and cut by basaltic
lavas and veins (Fig. 6A). Halobia and Ammonite fossils
indicate probable Late Triassic age (Fig. 6B). The upper
levels were dated as Berriasian-Barremian from radiolarian
fossils (Üner 2010).

Metamorphic rocks occur between the peridotite tectonites

and volcanic-sedimentary unit as thin ( 50 m) and discontin-
uous tectonic slices (Üner 2010; Üner & Çak r 2011). They
consist of amphibolites, calcschists, quartzites, micaschists
and epidosites. Microtectonic analysis indicates at least three
deformation phases. Temperature and pressure conditions
were calculated from hornblende and plagioclase composi-
tion to 501–683 °C and 3.5–5 kbar respectively. Ar

/Ar

ages from amphibole were estimated to
166.9 1.1

Ma and 177.08 0.96 Ma

which indicate an intra-oceanic subduc-
tion in Middle Jurassic time (Çelik et al.
2011).

Peridotite tectonites are mainly com-

posed of harzburgites which include
regu

lar dunite and pyroxenite bands,

irregular dunite zones and chromitite
bodies. Harzburgite and dunite tectonites
have plastic deformation traces repre-
sented by foliation, linea tion and folds.
They are cut by gabbro and pyroxenite
veins generally parallel to the foliation
planes and by isolated diabase dikes with
chilled margins.

The cumulates consist of undeformed

dunites, wherlites, pyroxenites, gabbros,
diorites and plagiogranites from bottom
to top. They overlie the peridotite tec-
tonites by a dunite-wherlite-pyroxenite
alternation. The layering in the cumu-
lates is parallel to the tectonite-cumulate
contact and foliation planes in the tec-
tonites. Toward the top, the gabbros, dio-
rites and plagiogranites become the dom-
inant litho logies (Üner et al. 2014). Pla-
giogranites crop out largely at the top of
the cumulates as massive bodies and
dykes. The zircon age of the plagiogran-
ite dyke was estimated to 179

(Dilek & Thy 2006) and gabbro cumu-
lates yielded the

Ar/

Ar amphi-

bole-plateau age of 150 Ma (Çelik et al.
2013).

Isolated diabase dykes cut all the units

except the volcanic-sedimentary unit.

Sheeted dykes occur at the top of the

cumulates and cut the gabbros, diorites
and plagiogranites with high angles to
the layering (Fig. 7). They have gener-

ally E–W orientation and a steep dip angle. Sheeted dykes
have the ophitic texture formed mainly of plagioclase and
hornblende.

The Eldivan Ophiolite is uncon formably covered by a sedi-

mentary series composed of conglomerate, sandstone, mud-
stone, radiolarian chert and pelagic limestone (Mart Forma-
tion). Fossil data from the pelagic limestones provided the
Cenomanian–Turonian age (Akyürek et al. 1984). Therefore
the Eldivan Ophiolite could have been emplaced onto the
Gondwanian margin between the Barremian (the youngest
level of the underlying radio laritic series) and the Cenomanian
(the oldest unit of the cover).

A palaeomagnetic study was carried out on the radiolarian

cherts and pillow lavas which occur within sandstone, marls
and pelagic limestones in the lower levels of the cover unit

Fig. 6. A — Pink coloured limestone blocks in the lower levels of the radiolaritic series.
Eldivan Ophiolite at the southeast of the Akçal village. The limestone blocks are surroun-
ded and cut by alkali basaltic lavas. B — An Ammonite fossil with diameter of 4cm in the
limestone block. The limestone block also contains several Halobia (not visible on the
photo).

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(Çapan et al. 1983). According to
Çapan et al. (1983), the Eldivan
ophiolite was situated at 11°N
during the Cenomanian time
(90

Ma). Its actual situation

( 40°N) shows that the Eldivan
Ophiolite has been moved at least
3200 km towards the north as
a part of the Gondwanian conti-
nent after its emplacement.

The Eldivan ophiolite and Mart

formation were overthrusted by
the Ahlat ophio lite. The contact is
well observed to the Northeast of
Korgun town where the brec-
ciated and serpentinized peridot-
ite tectonites overthrust the lower
Turonian level of the Mart For-
mation (Fig. 8).

Ahlat Ophiolite

The Ahlat ophiolite is an east–

west orien ted assemblage formed
of a volcanic-sedimentary unit,
metamorphic unit, peridotite tec-
tonites and cumulates.

The volcanic-sedimentary unit

(radiolaritic series) crops out
largely at the base of the peridot-
ite tectonites. It is composed of
red coloured radiolarian cherts,
shales, pelagic limestones and
basic volcanic rocks. Palaeonto-
logical data from the middle and
upper levels of the volcanic-sedi-
mentary unit indicate Mid-
dle-Late Jurassic (Üner 2010)
and Turonian ages (Hakyemez et
al. 1986).

Fig. 7. View of sheeted dykes cutting the roof of the cumulates (diorites and plagiogranites). Dykes are oriented E–W/60S. Their thickness
changes between 20–60 cm. North of abanözü village.

Fig. 8. View of the thrust contact between the Ahlat Ophiolite and the Mart Formation. North of
Korgun village.

Fig. 9. View of isolated diabase dyke cutting the serpentinized peridotite tectonites of the Edige
Ophiolite. Edige Village. The dyke has a thickness of 5 m and an orientation of N75NW25.

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The metamorphic unit occurs as thin tectonic slices

between peridotite tectonites and volcanic-sedimentary unit.
It consists of amphibolite, tremolite-actinolite schist and epi-
dote-garnet schist. The mineral paragenesis points to green-
schist facies metamorphic conditions.

The peridotite tectonites consist mainly of serpentinized

harzburgites, rare dunites, and chromitite bodies. The harz-
burgite and dunite tectonites exhibit traces of plastic defor-
mation such as foliation, lineation and folds. They are cut by
pegmatoid gabbro and pyroxenite veins generally parallel to
the foliation planes.

The cumulates occur as several hectometric sized pockets

within the upper part of the harzburgite tectonites. They are
mainly composed of gabbros.

Isolated diabase dykes cut the tectonites and cumulates.
The Ahlat ophiolite is overlain by a detritic sedimentary

unit of Late Turonian to Maastrichtian age (Kavak forma-
tion). Therefore the Ahlat ophiolite should have been
obducted during middle Turonian time as it overthrust the
Lower Turonian level of the Mart formation (Fig. 8).

Edige Ophiolite

The Edige ophiolite occurs as several tectonic slices within

the tectonic mélange zone. The most important slice crops
out around the village of Edige with a length of 10 km and
width of 0.6 to 2.6 km (Fig. 2). It is composed of volca-
nic-sedimentary unit (radiolaritic series), peridotite tec-
tonites, peridotite, pyroxenite and gabbros cumulates (Tan-
kut & Say n 1990). Peridotite tectonites and cumulates are
cut by isolated diabase dykes oriented generally NE–SW
(Fig. 9)

Another important fragment of the Edige ophiolite occurs

on the Beynam Hill in the vicinity of Karaali village (Fig. 2).
It consists of imbricated slices of harzburgite tectonites,
cumulate gabbros, radiolarian cherts and basaltic volcanics
with Cyprus type massif sulphide deposits. Peridotite tec-
tonites and cumulates are cut by isolated diabase dykes. In
this region, the Edige ophiolite overthrust the Ceno-
manian-Campanian clastics with Liassic limestone blocks
(Akyürek et al. 1996; Imer 2006) within the tectonic mélange
unit. Therefore Edige ophiolite should have been emplaced
during the Middle Campanian as it is overlain by the Late
Campanian–Eocene detritic sedimentary series.

Tectonic Mélange Unit

The Tectonic Mélange Unit is a chaotic formation com-

posed of various blocks derived from ophiolites (peridotites,
pyroxenites, gabbros, basaltic volcanic rocks, radiolarian
cherts), from the Karakaya and Hisarl kaya formations
(Palaeozoic and Mesozoic limestones, detritic sedimentary
rocks), from the Lalelik formation (Jurassic limestones) and
from post-ophiolitic cover units (Cenomanian–early Campa-
nian sedimentary rocks, basic volcanic rocks). It is known as

the Ophiolitic block mélange (Norman 1973, 1985), Dereköy
formation (Batman 1978; 1981), Hisarköy formation
(Akyürek et al. 1984), Ophiolite mélange (Tankut 1990),
Anatolian complex (Koçyi it 1991) and Cretaceous mélange
with ophiolitic blocks (Rojay 2013). It outcrops between
Çand r and Haymana towns within the large thrust fault
zones. To the north of Haymana town, around Dereköy and
Deveci villages, the Tectonic Mélange Unit is sandwiched
between the Karakaya Formation at the top and the
Hisarl kaya Formation at the bottom. The Tectonic Mélange
Unit is covered unconformably by a post-tectonic sedimen-
tary series of middle Campanian–middle Eocene age indica-
ting that it was formed during Early–Middle Campanian.

Discussion and geodynamical evolution

The main characteristic of the Ankara Mélange is the close

relationships between limestone block mélanges (Karakaya
and Hisarl kaya formations) and Neotethyan ophiolites. The
Karakaya and Hisarl kaya Formations are located on both
sides of the ophiolites, the Karakaya Formation at the top and
the Hisarl kaya Formation at the bottom. The Karakaya and
Hisarl kaya Formations are roughly similar and comprise
Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic limestone blocks
cemented by Middle Triassic clastics. Consequently the
Karakaya and Hisarl kaya formations are incorrectly consi-
dered as different slices of the same unit and interpreted
either as the fragments of the Triassic Karakaya Ocean
( engör & Y lmaz 1981; Koçyi it 1987; Genç & Y lmaz
1995; Göncüo lu et al. 2000) or as a subduction-accretion
complex related to the northward subduction of the Palaeo-
tethyan oceanic lithosphere (Tekeli 1981; Picket & Robert-
son 1996; Okay 2000; Okay & Göncüo lu 2004).

Nevertheless the lower unit and the cover series of the

Karakaya and Hisarl kaya formations have important geo-
logical differences. The lower unit of the Karakaya Forma-
tion is composed of metamorphic rocks such as phyllites and
schists while the lower unit of the Hisarl kaya Formation is
formed from clastics such as conglomerate, sandstone and
dark grey shales. The unconformable cover series of the
Karakaya Formation (Ankara group) are represented by the
Lower Jurassic–Upper Cretaceous (upper Hettangian–lower
Campanian) sedimentary sequence composed of conglome-
rates, shallow marine clastics with intercalation of Rosso
Ammonitico facies carbonates, fine-grained clastics and
sedimentary mélange (Koçyi it 1987), while the cover unit
of the Hisarl kaya Formation is composed of the Upper
Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous layered micritic limestones and
claystone (Batman 1978).

Therefore we interpret the Karakaya and Hisarl kaya for-

mations as the marginal units formed during rifting of the
Neotethys by the fragmentation of Gondwanian carbonate
platform in Middle Triassic times (Fig. 10A). Before rifting
of the Neotethys, the northern part of Gondwana should have
been represented by a single carbonate platform, because the

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THE ANKARA MÉLANGE — AN INDICATOR OF TETHYAN EVOLUTION OF ANATOLIA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2016, 67, 4, 403–414

Fig. 10. Schematic interpretation of the geodyna-
mical evolution of Anatolia from Late Permian to
Recent (modi ed from Çak r 2009). Cross-sec-
tions represent the indicated part of the maps with
larger scale in the N-S direction. 1 — Gondwa-
nian continent during Palaeozoic and Mesozoic;
2 — Gondwanian continent during Palaeozoic and
Eurasian continent during Mesozoic; 3 — Eura-
sian continent during Palaeozoic and Mesozoic;
4 — Ophiolite; 5 — Radiolaritic series;

6 — Limestone block mélanges; 7 — Magmatic
arc; 8 — Subduction; 9 — Overthrusting.
A — Late Permian-Late Triassic: rifting and
opening of the Neotethyan Ocean following the
closure of the Paleotethys in Late Permian-Lower
Triassic time.
B — Late Upper Triassic-Middle Jurassic: begin-
ning of the northward subduction of the Neo-
tethyan Oceanic lithosphere (late Upper Triassic).
Beginning of Pontid arc magmatism (Liassic).
Opening of the Vardar-Küre-Artvin marginal
basins (Liassic).
C — Late Middle Jurassic-Early Upper Creta-
ceous: emplacement of the Küre-Cangalda -
Elekda ophiolites (Late Middle Jurassic).
Emplacement of the Vardar Ophiolites (Late
Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous). Closure of the

Vardar-Küre-Artvin marginal basins (Late

Jurassic-Early Cretaceous) Emplacement of
Dinaro-Hellenic Ophiolites (Late Upper
Jurassic-Early Cretaceous). Closure of the western
part of the Neotethyan Ocean (Early Cretaceous).
Emplacement of the Eldivan Ophiolite (Aptian-
Albian). Opening of the Black-Sea (Albian).
D — Early  Upper Cretaceous-late Cretaceous:
emplacement of Ahlat Ophiolite onto the northern
margin of the Anatolian Promontory (Turonian).
Beginning of the southern subduction of the
eastern part of the Neotethyan oceanic litho-
sphere. Baskil-Yüksekova arc magmatism (Turo-
nian) and opening of Elaz  and Hazar back-arc
basins in the early Campanian and Maastrichtian,
respectively.
E — late Upper Cretaceous-Eocene-Emplace-
ment of Edige ophiolite onto the cover of the Eldi-
van Ophiolite (Middle Campanian). Emplacement
of Guleman and  spendere-Kömürhan-Karada
Ophiolites (late Campanian). Closure of the
Elaz  Back-Arc Basin (Late Campanian) and
opening of Hazar basin (Maastrichtian). Emplace-
ment of the major parts of Anatolian Ophiolites
and closure of the central part of the Neotethyan
Ocean (Late Maastrichtian-Paleocene). Opening
of the Maden marginal basin within the Arabian
promontory (middle Eocene). Closure of the
Maden Basin and emplacement of the Maden
complex. (late Eocene).
F — Oligocene-Recent: Opening of the Eastern
Mediterranean basin (Oligo-Miocene). Reover-
thrusting of some Neotethyan ophiolites (late
Miocene).
PTS — Palaeotethyan suture; PTO — Palaeotethyan Ophiolite; NR — Neotethyan rifting; KB — Küre back-arc basin; KF — Karakaya
formation; VS — Volcanic and sedimentary unit (Radiolaritic series). HF — Hisarl kaya Formation; BSR — Black-Sea rifting; KCEO
— Küre-Cangalda -Elekda  Ophiolite; EO — Eldivan Ophiolite; LF — Lalelik Formation; AO — Ahlat Ophiolite; EO — Edige Ophio-
lite; EHB — Elaz  and Hazar Basins; MB — Maden Basin; KM — K r ehir Massif; TrO — Troodos Ophiolite; Kr — Kyrenia range;
Med. Sea — Mediteranean Sea.

412

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, 2016, 67, 4, 403–414

Permian carbonate blocks in the Karakaya Formation have
similar palaeontological and biofacies characteristics as
various Upper Permian platform margin deposits of the Tau-
rides (Alt ner et al. 2000).

Consequently, we suggest that in the Anatolian region,

Neotethys opened as a single ocean and formed three gulfs
towards the south (Çak r 2009). Following the rifting,

the Karakaya and Hisarl kaya formations should be evalua-
ted differently at opposite sides of the Neotethys;

the Karakaya formation in the north and the Hisarl kaya
formation in the south. After the collision of Gondwana
and Eurasia, in the middle Campanian time, the Neotethyan
Ophiolites were sandwiched between the Karakaya For-
mation at the top and the Hisarl kaya Formation at the
bottom.

During the latest Triassic, Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere

began to subduct towards the north, under the Eurasian con-
tinent (Fig. 10B), causing deformation and imbrication of the
marginal formations (Karakaya Formation and radiolaritic
series). The high pressure metamorphism of some Neo-
tethyan ophiolites along the zmir–Ankara–Erzincan suture
zone supports this suggestion. The oldest radiometric ages
from the high pressure metamorphic rocks associated with
the Neotethyan ophiolite to the north of Eski ehir town range
between 204 and 215 Ma, (Okay et al. 2002). The average
ages (204–205 Ma) indicate that the subduction of the Neo-
tethyan oceanic lithosphere began 30–40My after the rifting
of the Neotethyan Ocean.

During the latest Triassic and Liassic times, probably due

to the subduction of the Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere, the
Küre marginal basin opened and the Pontide arc magmatism
was initiated (Çak r et al. 2006).

During the Middle Jurassic the intraoceanic subduction of

the Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere took place.

During the uppermost Early Cretaceous (Aptian–Albian),

following the intraoceanic subduction along the fracture
zone, the Eldivan Ophiolite was emplaced onto the north-
western margin of the Central Anatolian promontory
(Fig. 10C) and moved to the north as a part of the Gondwa-
nian continent. At that time the Eldivan Ophiolite was situ-
ated 3200 km to the south of its present day location.

In the Turonian, during the northward movement of Gond-

wana, the Ahlat Ophiolite was obducted onto the northern
margin of the Anatolian Promontory, overthrusting partially
the Eldivan Ophiolite and its cover (Mart Formation)

During the Turonian, while the general northward subduc-

tion was going on, the eastern part of the Neotethyan oceanic
lithosphere was subducted southward under the northern
margin of the Arabian Promontory ( engör & Y lmaz 1981;
Michard et al. 1984) and also partially under the Anatolian
promontory (Fig. 10D). Therefore, we suggest that during
the Turonian–Campanian period (90–76 Ma), calc-alkaline
magmatism (Baskil-Yüksekova magmatic complex) took
place and the Elaz , Hazar and Maden basins were opened
successively in Campanian, Maastrichtian and Eocene times
respectively (Fig. 10D–E).

The initial collision between the Eurasian and Gondwanian

continents occurred in the early–middle Campanian. There-
fore the Eurasian active continental marginal units (Karakaya
Formation and radiolaritic series) and the remnant oceanic
lithospheric fragments (Edige Ophiolites) were overthrust
onto the Gondwanian passive marginal units with the earlier
emplaced ophiolites and their post-emplacement cover
(Fig. 10E–F).

Conclusions

Geological data from the North Central Anatolian region

indicate that the Ankara Mélange consists of several units
formed from the rifting to the partial closure of the Neo-
tethyan Ocean. These units represented by the marginal
formations (Karakaya and Hisarl kaya formations), ophio-
lites (Eldivan, Ahlat and Edige ophiolites), post-ophiolitic
cover unit (Mart and Kavak formations) and Tectonic
Mélange Unit were imbricated during the first collision
between the Gondwanian and Eurasian continents. Conse-
quently the Ankara Mélange is regarded as a key formation
for understanding the geodynamic history of Anatolia.

Based on the critical review of various ophiolite belts in

the Anatolian Peninsula and our own research in the Ankara
Mélange we have shown that in the Anatolian region the
Neotethys was opened as a single ocean during Middle–Late
Triassic times. At that time the Karakaya and Hisarl kaya for-
mations, the main units of the Ankara Mélange, were formed
by the fragmentation of the Gondwanian carbonate platform.
Consequently the Karakaya and Hisarl kaya formations
re present the Mesozoic marginal units of the Eurasian and
Gondwanian continents, respectively. During the oceanic
period of the Neotethys, the northern margin of Gondwana
had a indented shape represented by Arabian, Anatolian,
Aegean and Adriatic promontories from east to west. The
fossil ridge axis was nearly oriented N70–90E.

Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere has been subducted toward

the north under Eurasian continent since latest Triassic time
and caused the intense deformation and high pressure meta-
morphism of the Eurasian marginal units (volcanic-sedimen-
tary unit and Karakaya Formation). The opening of the Küre
marginal basin and the beginning of the Pontid arc magma-
tism occurred in Liassic time within the Eurasian continent
onto the suprasubduction position.

While the general northward subduction was going on, the

eastern part of the Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere was sub-
ducted southward under the Arabian promontory from the
Turonian. This event caused the Baskil-Yüksekova arc mag-
matism during the Turonian-Campanian and successive
opening of the Elaz , Hazar and Maden back-arc basins
during the Campanian, Maastrichtian and Eocene times
respectively.

The geological data indicate that the ophiolites of the

Ankara mélange represent three different fragments of the
Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere obducted at different times.

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THE ANKARA MÉLANGE — AN INDICATOR OF TETHYAN EVOLUTION OF ANATOLIA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2016, 67, 4, 403–414

The Eldivan Ophiolite is a NE–SW oriented and almost

complete assemblage emplaced onto the northwestern mar-
gin of the Anatolian promontory during Albian–Aptian. The
Ahlat Ophiolite is an E–W oriented and incomplete asssem-
blage emplaced onto the northern margin of the Anatolian
Promontory during the Middle Turonian. The Edige ophiolite
represented by several tectonic slices was emplaced in the
Middle Campanian just before the first collision between
Gondwana and Eurasia.

The Tectonic Mélange Unit is a chaotic formation com-

posed of various blocks derived from ophiolites, from the
Karakaya and Hisarl kaya formations, from the Lalelik for-
mation and from Cenomanian–Early Campanian post-ophi-
olitic cover units.

The first collision between the Anatolian Promontory of

the Gondwanian continent and the southern margin of the
Eurasian Continent occurred in the Middle Campanian as the
Ankara Mélange is covered unconformably by the post-tec-
tonic sedimentary series of middle Campanian–middle
Eocene age.

Acknowledgements: The authors are grateful to Prof.

D. Plašienka and Prof. F. Neubauer for their extensive
reviews and constructive comments on the manuscript and to
Dr. M. Kohút for editorial help. Caner Diker for her great
effort for digitalize the gures.

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