GeolCarp_Vol67_No3_211

www.geologicacarpathica.com

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, JUNE 2016, 67, 3, 211–222

doi: 10.1515/geoca-2016-0014

Gemstone deposits of Serbia

ZORAN MILADINOVIĆ

1

, VLADIMIR SIMIĆ

, RADE JELENKOVIĆ

and MILOJE ILIĆ

University of Belgrade, Faculty of Mining and Geology, Djušina 7, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia;



zoran.miladinovic@rgf.bg.ac.rs

Gemological Association of Serbia, Rovinjska 12, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia

(Manuscript received November 2, 2015; accepted in revised form March 10, 2016)

Abstract: Gemstone minerals in Serbia have never been regarded as an interesting and significant resource. Neverthe-

less, more than 150 deposits and occurrences have been recorded and some of them preliminarily explored in the last

50 years. The majority of deposits and occurrences are located within the Serbo-Macedonian metallogenic province

and the most significant metallogenic units at the existing level of knowledge are the Fruška Gora ore district, Cer ore

district, Šumadija metallogenic zone, Kopaonik metallogenic zone and Lece-Halkidiki metallogenic zone. The most

important genetic type of deposits is hydrothermal, particularly in case of serpentinite/peridotite as host/parent rock.

Placer deposits are also economically important. The dominant gemstones are silica minerals: chalcedony (chryso -

prase, carnelian, bluish chalcedony etc.), jasper (picture, landscape, red etc.), common opal (dendritic, green, milky

white etc.), silica masses (undivided), and quartz (rock crystal, amethyst etc.). Beside silica minerals significant gem-

stones in Serbia include also beryl (aquamarine), garnet (almandine and pyrope), tourmaline, fluorite, rhodochrosite,

carbonate-silica breccia, carbonate-silica onyx, silicified wood, howlite, serpentinite, marble onyx, and kyanite. This

paper aims to present an overview of Serbian gemstone deposits and occurrences and their position based on a simpli-

fied gemstone metallogenic map of Serbia, as well as genetic-industrial classification of gemstone deposits and gem-

stone varieties.

Key words: gemstone, genetic-industrial classification, metallogenic localization, genetic types.

Introduction

Gemstones are a group of different minerals and rocks quite

sensitive to personal taste and the aesthetic quality of not

only raw material but the final processing as well. Gem -

stones are classified either a subgroup of non-construction

industrial minerals (Dill 2010), a subgroup of deposits of in-

dustrial crystals (Vakanjac 1969), or a subgroup of industrial

minerals (Kužvart 1984).

The search for gemstone deposits in Serbia has attracted

very limited attention in the past, although opal and silicified

wood from some localities were used in Neolithic time (Bogo-

savljević Petrović 2005; Bogosavljević Petrović & Marković

2014), as well as in the early Byzantine period, when in Justi-

niana Prima (Spieser 2012) amethyst and agate from the Raso-

vača deposit were used for mosaic as can still be seen today.

Geological prospection for gemstones in the second half of

last century has been focused mostly on recording interesting

locations observed during exploration of other mineral re-

sources (metallic and non-metallic). In very rare cases exten-

sive and detailed explorations were performed with

estimation of ore reserves, like the most explored gemstone

area in Serbia-Lece area, due to the Pb-Zn-Au deposit Lece

that was explored and exploited during last half century or

more. Despite officially explored deposits, production of

gemstones has never begun. Overview of the exploration re-

sults and a list of all at that time known gemstone deposits

was summarized by Vakanjac (1978), Malešević et al.

(1985) and Ilić et al. (1998).

Regional prospection and novel studies of gemstones in

Serbia restarted in 2002, mostly in the Lece volcanic com-

plex and Fruška Gora Mt. (Ilić et al. 2004; Miladinović et al.

2005) but also on Avala and Kosmaj Mt. (Ilić et al. 2010).

The quality of raw gemstone material has been certified by

lapidary processing techniques, and their attractiveness has

been successfully tested in the Serbian market.

Geological setting and metallogenic zoning

The geological setting of Serbia is very diverse with nu-

merous geological formations, some of them prospective re-

garding gemstone minerals and rocks (e.g., ophiolites,

Tertiary acid to intermediate volcanic complexes, some

granitoide complexes, etc.). The mineral resources of Serbia

have recently been summarized by Jelenković et al (2008),

but gemstones were not included, so this paper is mostly

dealing with geological features significant for gemstone ori-

gin and localization.

The main geotectonic units of Serbia include (Dimitrijević

1997, Schmid et al. 2008, Chiari et al. 2011): The Adria-

derived units (Dinarides), the Vardar zone, the Europe-

derived Dacia Mega Unit (Serbo-Macedonian Massif and

Carpatho-Balkanides), the mixed European and Adriatic-

affinity Tisza Mega-Unit (completely covered by thick sedi-

mentary rocks of the Pannonian basin in Serbia), and the

Moesian platform with external foredeep (Fig. 1).

The Dinarides consist of the following units: East Bos-

nian-Durmitor Unit, Dinaric (External) Ophiolite Belt, and

Drina-Ivanjica Unit. The East Bosnian-Durmitor Unit in-

cludes a Palaeozoic basement, covered by unmetamorphosed

Triassic to Palaeogene neritic and pelagic carbonate se-

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, 2016, 67, 3, 211–222

quences topped by widespread Late Cretaceous to Miocene

siliciclastic foredeep deposits (Chiari et al. 2011). Anisian to

Ladinian porphyrite is typical for that unit. Towards the east

it is overthrust by the Dinaric or External Ophiolite belt

(Dimitrijević 1997), made up of Jurassic ophiolite and sub-

ophiolite melange. The Drina-Ivanjica Unit consists of

Palaeozoic metamorphic complex overlain by Permian to

Early Triassic shale and sandstone, and Middle Triassic to

Early Jurassic predominantly carbonate sediments, followed

by Middle Jurassic radiolarites. In the SW part of Serbia

effusive Oligocene to Miocene magmatic rocks of calc-alka-

line affinity (Cvetković et al. 2004; Schefer et al. 2010) oc-

cur occasionally.

The Vardar zone represents a complex assemblage of con-

tinental and oceanic-derived units (Chiari et al. 2011 and refe-

rences therein). The oceanic-derived units consist of

a sub-ophiolite melange overthrust by ophiolites with a meta-

morphic sole at its base. Metamorphic Adria-derived units of

the Jadar-Kopaonik-Studenica areas are exposed below the

oceanic-derived units (Zelić et al. 2010). The Europe-derived

continental units include metamorphic and sedimentary

rocks of the Sava zone (Ustaszewski et al. 2010). The whole

Vardar zone is characterized by widespread intrusive and ef-

fusive Oligocene to Pliocene magmatic rocks of calc-alka-

line affinity (Cvetković et al. 2004; Schefer et al. 2010).

The Europe-derived Serbo-Macedonian Unit (as part of the

Dacia Mega Unit) overthrust the Vardar zone. The Serbo-

Macedonian Unit includes a medium- to high-grade meta-

morphic Neoproterozoic to Early Palaeozoic gneissic

basement and sub-greenschist to epidote-amphibolite grade

Palaeozoic successions. The Serbo-Macedonian Unit, par-

ticularly the southern part, was intruded by calc-alkaline in-

trusive and effusive magmatic rocks of the Oligocene age

(Pamić & Balen 2001). Further towards the east, the Car-

patho-Balkanides of the Dacia Mega Unit are subdivided

into Supragetic/Getic nappes, the Ceahlau-Severin ophiolite-

bearing nappes, and the Danubian nappes (Dimitrijević

1997; Matenco 2015). The Supragetic/Getic nappes consist

of Neoproterozoic to Palaeozoic metamorphic rocks, which

are unconformably overlain by Late Carboniferous to Permian

continental clastics and Mesozoic rocks (Dimitrijević 1997;

Iancu et al. 2005). The Mesozoic rocks include Middle Trias-

sic carbonate platform followed by detrital Late Triassic to

Early Jurassic strata, Middle Jurassic carbonates and radio-

larites, Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous pelagic series and

Albian to Cenomanian Molasse-type deposits. Geticum was

intruded by Palaeozoic granitoids and Late Cretaceous

Timok magmatic complex and Ridan-Krepoljin zone effu-

sives.

The Danubicum is composed of Neoproterozoic to Palaeo-

zoic metamorphic rocks and Palaeozoic ophiolites ( Zakariadze

et al. 2006) in the Poreč-Stara Planina zone, unconformably

overlain by Middle Carboniferous to Middle Jurassic conti-

nental clastics with subordinate carbonate rocks, Late Juras-

sic carbonate rocks and Albian to Late Cretaceous clastic to

carbonate sedimentary rocks, occasionally with volcano-sedi-

mentary sequences (Dimitrijević 1997).

The Ceahlau-Severin ophiolite-bearing nappes (Krajina

zone) are relics of an oceanic rift (Matenco et al. 2010). The

basement is made of ophiolite complex (Matenco 2015),

while sedimentary cover consists of Early to Late Cretaceous

Sinaia and Mokranje Flysch, and Miocene to Pliocene deposits.

The Moesian platform with external foredeep in Serbia is

covered by thick Miocene to Pliocene and Quaternary sedi-

ments and, hence, of no interest regarding gemstones.

Gemstones in Serbia occur within four regional metallo-

genic units (Janković 1977, 1990; Janković et al. 1997; Je-

lenković et al. 2008): 1) Dinaric Metallogenic Province

(DMP), covering western and south-western Serbia, 2) Ser-

bo-Macedonian Metallogenic Province (SMMP) in the cen-

tral part of Serbia, 3) Carpatho-Balkan Metallogenic

Province (CBMP) in the eastern part of Serbia, and 4) Da-

cian Metallogenic Province (DcMP). The relationships be-

tween the metallogenic units and the main geotectonic units

of Serbia are summarized in Figure 1. Smaller metallogenic

units are marked in Figure 2.

Since the geology of Serbia is so diverse and complex,

only lithological and structural units of great significance for

Fig. 1. Main geotectonic and metallogenic units of Serbia (modified

after Dimitrijević 1997; Schmid et al. 2008; Chiari et al. 2011).

1 — Panonian Basin, 2 — Budva-Cukali Zone, 3 — High Karst

Unit, 4 — Pre-Karst & Bosnian Flysch Unit, 5 — East Bosnian-

Durmitor Thrust Sheet, 6 — Dinaric Ophiolitic Belt, 7 — Western

Vardar Ophioliic Unit, 8 — Drina-Ivanjica Thrust Sheet, 9 — Jadar-

Kopaonik Thrust Sheet, 10 — Sava Zone, 11 — Eastern Vardar

Ophiolitic Unit, 12 — Serbo-Macedonian Unit, 13 — Getic Unit,

14 — Danubian Nappes, 15 — Ceahlau-Severin Unit, 16 — Central

Balkan & Prebalkan Units, 17 — Moesian Platform, 18 — External

Moesian Foredeep.

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MILADINOVIĆ, SIMIĆ, JELENKOVIĆ

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2016, 67, 3, 211–222

Table 1: List of gemstone deposits and occurrences and their localities in Serbia.

At the current state of geological exploration and knowledge,

21 gemstones with numerous varieties and subvarieties, were

selected and studied in more detail (Table 2).

Based on all available data genetic-industrial classification

of most significant Serbian gemstones is proposed (Table 2).

Serbian gemstones and their varieties are presented and clas-

sified according to their genetic type and corresponding pro-

ductive geological formation.

the formation and distribution of gemstone deposits are taken

into consideration and presented in the map (Fig. 2).

Genetic-industrial classification of gemstone deposits

More than 150 gemstone mineral deposits and occurrences

with different level of exploration are located in Serbia.

No.

Gemstone deposits

Kozje brdo (agate; chalcedony – colourless, bluish, purple; jasper – brown red, quartz – rock crystal, carbonate-silica breccia and onyx)

2–4

A group of deposits in the eastern part of Fruška Gora: 2 – Neradin (carbonate-silica breccia and onyx, chalcedony – colourless, jasper – brown, serpentinite);

3 – Hopovo (agate, carbonate-silica breccia); 4 – Jazak (carbonate-silica breccia)

5–7

A group of deposits in the western part of Fruška Gora: 5 – Letenka (common opal, carbonate-silica breccia); 6 – Duge Luke (carbonate-silica breccia,

chalcedony, jasper); 7 – Grabovo (common opal, quartz – rock crystal, jasper, carbonate-silica breccia)

A group of deposits in the eastern part of Cer Mt (beryl – aquamarine, schorl, quartz – rock crystal, morion, smoky quartz)

Pinosava-Resnik (landscape jasper)

Avala (serpentinite)

Babe (quartz – rock crystal, jasper)

Ropočevo (marble breccia)

13–17

A group of fluorite deposits near Krupanj: 13 – Ravnaja; 14 – Pantelići; 15 – Kućište; 16 – Jovanovići; 17 – Teletići

Kameniti Oglavak (common opal)

19–21

A group of deposits near Aranđelovac: 19 – Bukovik (beryl – aquamarine, quartz – rock crystal, morion); 20 – Vagan (beryl – aquamarine); 21 – Onjeg (schorl)

22–27

A group of deposits: 22 – Gaj-Lazine (chalcedony, jasper, common opal); 23 – Ugljarevac (chalcedony – colourless, carnelian; jasper; common opal);

24 – Varnica (jasper, colourless chalcedony); 25 – Ramaća (common opal, chalcedony); 26 – Dobrača (common opal, jasper, quartz – rock crystal, chalcedony,

magnesite-silica breccia); 27 – Kovijanica (common opal, chalcedony)

28–29

A group of deposits: 28 – Vučkovica (chalcedony, agate, common opal, carbonate-silica onyx); 29 – Donja Vučkovica (chalcedony, common opal)

30–32

A group of deposit near Gornji Milanovac: 30 – Srezojevci (jasper, chalcedony – colourless, carnelian); 31 – Boblija (jasper – orbicular jasper, picture jasper;

agate; chalcedony – carnelian, sard, colourless; common opal); 32 – Kremenac (jasper, chalcedony, common opal)

Kremenjača (agate, jasper – landscape and picture, chalcedony)

Sirča (carbonate-silica onyx, chalcedony)

Teočin (quartz – rock crystal, milky quartz)

Cvetin Vrh (jasper, chalcedony, common opal)

Tometino polje (picture jasper)

Lozovik (marble onyx)

Antina Čuka (listvenite, serpentinite, green quartz)

Rgotina-Jelašnica (agate)

41–47

A group of deposits near Niš: 41 – Rujnik, 42 – Kremenac, 43 – Crni vrh, 44 – Rujnik–Igralište, 45 – Siterak, 46 – Torina, 47 – Humska čuka (chalcedony,

jasper, common opal)

Braneško Polje (dendritic opal, chalcedony)

Ribnica (common opal)

Barice (travertine onyx)

Drenovska reka (jasper)

Akmačići (jasper)

Banjica (marble onyx)

Lojanik (silicified wood)

Popina (jasper)

56–60

A group of deposits near Veluće monastery: 56 – Veluće, 57 – Pečeni grob, 58 – Žuti kamen, 59 – Ilijina glava, 60 – Punoševići (opal, jasper, chalcedony)

Koprivnica (fluorite)

Jarandol (howlite)

63–65

A group of common opal deposits near Duga Poljana: 63 – Šarski Potok, 64 – Šaransko Vrelo, 65 – Lazine

66–67

A group of deposits near Leposavić: 66 – Donje Jarinje, 67– Kremenjački Potok (common opal, chalcedony, jasper)

Trepča (quartz – rock crystal, rodochrosite)

69–71

A group of deposits in Drenica: 69 – Čikatovo, 70 – Baks (common opal, chrysoprase); 71 – Gladno Selo (silicified wood)

72–74

A group of deposits on Goleš Mt: 72 – Glavica (common opal – chrysopal, hony opal, milky opal, dendritic opal; chalcedony – chrysoprase), 73 – Medvece

(opal – milky, cacholong), 74 – Mirena (common opal)

75–76

A group of deposits on Mt Jastrebac: Pribežička Kosa, Hajdučki Izvor (kyanite)

Dobrotić (beryl – aquamarine)

78–79

A group of deposits near Prokuplje: 78 – Rgaja, 79 – Čukara (kyanite)

80–83

A group of deposits: 80 – Gajtan–Crvodik (jasper, chalcedony); 81 – Bučumet (jasper, chalcedony); 82 – Bučumetska Padina (jasper, chalcedony);

83 – Kameno Rebro (chalcedony, jasper);

84–86

A group of deposits: 84 – Lece (quartz – amethyst); 85 – Rasovača (quartz – amethyst, agate, jasper); 86 – Vrtače (chalcedony, jasper);

Kladanci (jasper, chalcedony)

88–91

A group of deposits: 88 – Caričin Grad–Sekicol, 89 – Caričina–Mijajlica, 90 – Svinjarica-Dubrava, 91 – Svinjarički potok (chalcedony, jasper)

Sijarinska banja (marble onyx)

Mutivode (chalcedony, jasper)

Klobukar (chalcedony, common opal)

Crni kamen (chalcedony)

Beli Kamen (magnesite-silica breccia)

97–99

A group of deposits near Vranjski Priboj: 97 – Kremen I, 98 – Kremen II, 99 – Jovička reka (jasper, chalcedony)

100–101 A group of deposits near Gornji Stajevac: 100 – Surlica I, 101 – Surlica II (chalcedony, jasper)

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, 2016, 67, 3, 211–222

Table 2: Genetic-industrial classification of gemstones in Serbia.

Geology and mineralogy of selected gemstone deposits

Selected Serbian gemstone deposits have been described

here in the shortest possible form, as the most representative

ones for their genetic types. In numerous deposits in Serbia

the dominant types of gemstones are silica minerals.

The quality of raw minerals from selected deposits was

tested using lapidary cutting and polishing techniques.

Genetic type

Ore-bearing geological

formation

Host rock

Deposits and occurrences

Gemstones

I Hydrothermal 1. Jurassic ultramafic

rocks

Serpentinite

Kozje Brdo (Fruška Gora)

Chalcedony (colourless, purple, bluish); agate,

carbonate-silica breccia and onyx, serpentinite

Ramaća (Kragujevac)

Opal (different coloured varieties, multicoloured)

Vučkovica (Kragujevac)

Magnesite-dolomite-silica breccia (variegated); agate

(bluish); serpentinite-magnesite breccia

Boblija, Kremenac (Gornji Milanovac) Jasper (variegated, orbicular); chalcedony (carnelian,

different colour varieties); opal (green)

Murgulska Reka (Lukovska Banja)

Ankerite (azure blue)

Harzburgite

Goleš – Mirena

Opal (brown)

Dobroševac

Opal (different colour varieties); chalcedony (different

colour varieties)

Serpentinite

Kuna Ljuget (Podujevo)

Opal (green and brown)

Klobukar (Novo Brdo)

Opal (brown); chalcedony (different colour varieties)

Antina Čuka (Kučevo)

Quartz (green), serpentinite

Gaj – Lazine (Kragujevac)

Opal (different colour varieties)

Chalcedony (different colour varieties)

2. Tertiary volcanic

complexes

Andesite

Rasovača (Lece volcanic complex)

Amethyst, agate, jasper

Lece (Lece volcanic complex)

Amethyst, agate, jasper

Bučumet, Bučumetska padina,

Gajtan-Crvodik (Lece volcanic complex)

Jasper and jasper-chalcedony (diverse colour varieties)

Dacite

Kremenjača (Borač-Kotlenik volcanic

complex)

Agate, chalcedony (bluish and pinkish), jasper (picture

jasper, different colour vaieties),

Kameniti Oglavak (Venčane)

Opal (different colour varieties)

3. Tertiary sediments

Sandstone, conglomerate Popina (Vrnjačka Banja)

Jasper (different colour varieties)

Dolomitic limestone,

marlstone

Magnesite deposit Beli Kamen

(Strezovce)

Silica (quartz-chalcedony) breccia (black); magne-

site-silica breccia; silicified dolomite (brown)

Marlstone, shale

Jarandol

Howlite

4. Mesozoic sediments

Dolomite

Teočin (Gornji Milanovac)

Quartz (rock crystal, milky quartz)

5. Palaeozoic

metamorphic rocks

Schists and marbles

Trepča (Pb-Zn deposit Stari Trg)

Quartz (rock crystal), calcite, rodochrosite

6. Plutonic complexes of

Palaeozoic to Tertiary

age

Limestone

Ravnaja, Pantelići, Kućište, Jovanovići,

Baletići (Krupanj)

Fluorite

II Pegmatite-

pneumatolitic

1. Plutonic complexes of

Palaeozoic and Cainozoic

age

Pegmatite (Tertiary)

Parlog (Cer), Bukovik (Aranđelovac)

Beryl (aquamarine), tourmaline (schorl), quartz (rock

crystal)

Cer, Rašće, Onjeg (Aranđelovac),

Tourmaline (schorl)

Pegmatite (Palaeozoic)

Rekovac, Staro Selo (Kragujevac),

Komša (Kučevo)

Quartz (rock crystal)

Šumane, Ornica (Lebane), Bujanovac

Tourmaline (schorl)

III Infiltration

1. Weathering crust on

ultramafic rocks of

Palaeogene age

Harzburgite

Goleš - Glavica

Opal (chrysopal, dendritic opal, different colour

varieties), chrysoprase

Medvece

Opal (milky white, dendritic)

Baks (Drenica)

Opal (green, brown, dendritic)

Gladno Selo (Drenica)

Silicified wood

Serpentinite

Ugljarevac (Kragujevac)

Opal (different colour varieties); chalcedony (grey with

brown specks)

Dobrača (Kragujevac)

Chalcedony (brown-black); silicified magnesite

(multicoloured)

Veluće (Trstenik)

Opal (different colour varieties); chalcedony (different

colour varieties)

Mataruge (Mataruška Banja)

Opal (different colour varieties); chalcedony (different

colour varieties)

Lojanik (Mataruška Banja)

Silicified wood

IV Sedimentary Placer

Alluvial sediments

Lešnička reka (Cer)

Beryl (aquamarine)

Elluvial, deluvial and

proluvial sediments

Vrtače, Kameno Rebro (Lece volcanic

complex)

Jasper (multicoloured), carnelian, jasper-chalcedony

(multicoloured)

Parlog (Cer)

Beryl (aquamarine); quartz (rock crystal, smoky quartz)

Klobukar (Novo Brdo)

Opal (brown); chalcedony (multicoloured)

V Metamorphic 1. Crystalline schists of

Precambrian and

Palaeozoic age

Gneiss and micaschist

Crni Vrh (Jagodina), Pribežička Kosa,

Hajdučki Izvor (Jastrebac), Rgaja,

Čukara (Prokuplje),

Kyanite

Ogošte (Gnjilane)

Garnet (almandine)

Metamorphogene

pegmatites

Dobrotić (Prokuplje)

Beryl-aquamarine

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, 2016, 67, 3, 211–222

Kozje Brdo

One of the most significant regions with gemstone depo -

sits in Serbia is the Fruška Gora ore district, located on the

Fruška Gora Mountain. Seven gemstone deposits have been

found in this district (Antonović et al. 1985; Antonović

1996; Ilić et al. 2002; Miladinović et al. 2005). Apart from

the aforementioned there are numerous, still insufficiently

explored gemstone mineralizations.

The Kozje Brdo deposit, as well as the majority of other

Fruška Gora gemstone deposits, is hosted by the Fruška Gora

ultramafic massif. That part of ophiolite underwent intensive

polyphase tectonic deformation (mainly disjunctive), serpen-

tinization, hydrothermal alteration (primarily listvenitiza-

tion) and mineralization (mainly carbonates and silica).

The Kozje brdo deposit is related to a regional E–W fracture

zone, namely the Srem dislocation (Čičulić-Trifunović &

Rakić 1977). Along this fracture zone intensive tectonic ac-

tivity enabled subsequent hydrothermal solutions that

formed gemstone minerals in the form of veins, veinlets,

nests and irregular ore bodies. Intermittent tectonic move-

ments brecciated previously formed gemstone ore bodies and

surrounding rocks, and caused formation of new generations

of silica and carbonate minerals. Hydrothermal activity in

this region was closely interrelated with Upper Oligocene–

Miocene tectonic activity and intermediate dacite-andesite

and latite volcanism (Knežević et al. 1991; Kovács et al.

2007; Vasković et al. 2010; Cvetkov et al. 2012).

The Kozje Brdo gemstone deposit is composed of chalce-

dony (colourless, bluish, purple, agate), quartz (rock crystal

and milky quartz), jasper (mainly brown), magnesite, dolo-

mite, calcite and ankerite. Microcrystalline magnesite bodies

formed at first, but have been subsequently repeatedly tec-

tonically broken and therefore intensely brecciated. Open

voids were filled with carbonate and silica minerals in the

form of parallel bands (onyx), concentric bands (agate), sepa-

rate veins and veinlets and as a cement in breccia. The last

mineral generation is made of quartz (rock crystal and milky

quartz) and chalcedony.

The dominant rock in this deposit is carbonate-silica brec-

cia, a magnesite-dolomite-ankerite rock with a high content

of silica. The basic colour of this rock is yellow-brown with

lighter and darker colour varieties. The carbonate-silica brec-

cia can also be used as an ornamental or decorative stone at

the same time.

Carbonate-silica onyx, often accompanying agate, consists

of parallel bands of mostly carbonate minerals (dolomite,

calcite, ankerite) alternating with silica minerals (chalcedony

and quartz). Silica also impregnates carbonate minerals giving

to the carbonate part of onyx a slightly higher hardness.

Band colours range from brown to pale green, yellow and

white.

Agate is mainly a constituent of carbonate-silica breccia

along with carbonate-silica onyx but it also forms separate

veins outside of the main ore body in host serpentinite. Kozje

Brdo agate is characterized by alternating bands of colour-

less, white and bluish bands. Rarely, some agate bands are

made of microcrystalline quartz. In the central parts of con-

centric agate bands, quartz rock crystal and/or brown to red

jasper is sometimes formed. Beside typical concentric agate,

tube agate occasionally occurs.

Kozje brdo jasper is mostly found together with carbonate-

silica onyx and agate in the central parts of symmetrically

filled voids. Jasper usually forms several centimetres thick

veinlets, but occasionally those veinlets pass into 10 cm

thick veins. Sometimes jasper forms small isolated nests of

decimetre dimensions.

The colourless and bluish chalcedonies occur in the form

of irregular veinlets, stockworks and nests (geodes) of deci-

metre dimensions. Colourless chalcedony variety is more

frequent then bluish, which is usually found in deluvial

placers. Both colourless and bluish chalcedony from Kozje

brdo, if properly cut en cabochon, resemble moonstone.

Purple chalcedony can be found along far eastern border of

the Kozje Brdo deposit forming veins and stockwork in ser-

pentinite. The colour of this gemstone displays various

shades of purple and bluish purple.

Very rarely and only in the southern part of the deposit

(placers) translucent yellow-brown chalcedony was discovered.

Quartz rock crystal is formed in cavities within veins and

nests with usually small crystals but uniform in size (around

one centimetre in length). Larger quartz druses can also be

found, with crystals reaching the length of 5 to 6 cm.

Ramaća

One of the typical gemstone deposits in the Šumadija metal-

logenic zone is Ramaća (Bogosavljević Petrović 2005). This

deposit consists of opal forming a significant mass stretching

in a N-S direction on the surface of around 18 ha. Opal masses

are located in tectonically broken and hydrothermally altered

serpentinite. This opal is common opal with conchoidal frac-

ture, vitreous lustre which on fractures tends to grade into

greasy, waxy and resinous lustre. Ramaća opal tends to be

very brittle particularly if found close to the surface. Never-

theless, there are sufficient quantities of rough crack-free

opal. It is possible that increased brittleness of Ramaća opal

is partly caused by inadequate previous exploitation.

The most common colour of Ramaća opal is green (grass

green) in various shades, brown (various shades), red, varie-

gated. Quartz and chalcedony can be sporadically found in

filled cracks. Intensely opalized serpentinites are also very

attractive and suitable to be used as a gemstone.

Kremenjača

The Kremenjača gemstone deposit is located in the SW

part of Borač volcanic complex, a part of Šumadija metallo-

genic zone. This complex is a part of the Rudnik-Borač-Kot-

lenik Late Palaeogene-Neogene volcanic formation

(Cvetković et al. 2000). The oldest surrounding rocks are

serpentinites, which are mostly overlain by Tertiary volcanic

rocks. The central part of the Kremenjača hill is made up of

dacite and dacite tuff. The tectonic setting of the site is

marked by N-S and NNW-SSE trending faults (Kurešević et

al. 2014). Silica gem minerals at Kremenjača form veins,

small nests and irregular ore bodies of hydrothermal origin

along with typical volcanic agate as defined by Moxon (2009).

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Kremenjača gemstone deposit is made of jasper, chalcedo-

ny (bluish, pale pink), sard, onyx, and agate. Jasper is diffe-

rently coloured: brown (various shades), dark red, purple,

grey and green. Sometimes it grades into picture jasper and

even to imperial jasper subvariety. Chalcedony is bluish and

pale pink. Orange-red carnelian and brown sard are found

only as small fragments in delluvial deposits. In onyx, white

translucent to opaque bands alternate with translucent to

transparent brown-coloured bands (Kurešević et al. 2014).

The most common agate in Kremenjača is translucent, co-

lourless, bluish and pale pink with white bands. It was also

recorded that “fish agate” was found (Malešević 1984, in Ilić

et al. 1998).

Boblija

This gemstone deposit is located on the Boblija hill near

Gornji Milanovac in a relatively small mass of intensely tec-

tonized and hydrothermally altered (silicified) ultramafics.

Intense Late Palaeocene-Neogene volcanic activity is typical

for the wide area, causing hydrothermal origin of gemstones

(Cvetković et al, 2000). Boblija is the far easternmost part of

the Maljen-Suvobor ultramafic complex which is intersected

by numerous fractures of different categories and size, the

most significant being of NW–SE orientation (Filipović et al.

1971).

The Boblija deposit is represented by a large irregular hori-

zontal plate-like ore body and numerous veins and veinlets in

hydrothermally altered (silicified and limonitized) serpen-

tinite (Ilić et al. 2006). Both horizontal ore body and veins

and veinlets are formed by silica minerals: jasper — varie-

gated and multi-coloured (picture jasper), orbicular jasper

(Fig. 3G–J, Fig. 4E–F), colourless and bluish chalcedony,

carnelian, sard and agate (Fig. 4G). Most frequently, different

colours gradually change over small distances. Darker jasper

shades (black, brown, dark red) alternate with lighter shades

(light red, orange, yellow, grey, white). Orbicular jasper has

very different body colour while orbs are usually white or

light yellow. In voids, around orbicular spheres, botryoidal

aggregate surfaces are occasionally covered by small quartz

crystals (up to 2 mm in length). In some orbicular jaspers,

agate zone continues over lightly coloured bends or spherulitic

zone, with alternation of colourless and brown chalcedony.

Cer Mountain

The Cer granitoid complex is located in the N-W part of

Serbia along the junction between the southern Pannonian

Basin and Jadar-Kopaonik thrust sheet. It is a complex lacco-

lith-like intrusion (~60 km

) of four rock-types (Koroneos et

al. 2011): metaluminous I-type quartz monzonite/quartz

monzodiorite (QMZD); peraluminous S-type two-mica

granite (TMG), which intrudes QMZD; Stražanica grano-

diorite/quartz monzonite (GDS); and isolated mafic enclaves

(ME), found only in QMZD. The same authors reported the

age of not later than 21 Ma for QMZD and estimated the age

of GDS and TMG at 18 and 16 Ma, respectively.

Gemstone mineralization is related to granite-porphyrite,

lamprophyre and aplite-pegmatite. Gemstone varieties in-

clude beryl (aquamarine type), tourmaline, rock crystal,

smoky quartz, morion and garnets.

Quartz and beryl from pegmatites are located at Parlog and

Mirkovača. As well as occurring in situ they have also accu-

mulated in elluvial placers. Beryl from Mirkovača is most

commonly blue (aquamarine) and rarely light green in colour.

Aquamarine crystals of gemstone quality are up to 3–4 cm in

size. They are usually translucent with nice blue colour sui-

table for plain cut (en cabochon, Schuman 2011). Apart from

these translucent, transparent clear crystals of both blue and

green aquamarine colour are present. They are quite suitable

for faceting.

After destruction of primary ore bodies, placer deposits

were formed with alluvial placers being economically the

most significant. Alluvial sediments of the Milinska River are

rich in garnets (pyrope and almandine) which are, unfor-

tunately, usually very small and only occasionally reaching

size suitable for gemstone cutting. Significant alluvial gem-

stone placers are those in the valleys of the Kamenička and

Lipovačka rivers.

Lojanik

The silicified wood of Lojanik is both a gemstone deposit

and a Neolithic archaeological site (Bogosavljević Petrović

et al. 2014). Lojanik is a hill on the outskirts of the Mataruš-

ka Banja thermal spa, 8 km SW of Kraljevo town. Silicified

wood occurs within Miocene conglomerates that were de-

posited in the southern part of the Zapadna Morava basin,

along the tectonic contact with the large serpentinite body of

Mt. Stolovi (Pavlović et al. 1977).

Lojanik occupies a space of some 5 ha with silicified wood

in the form of twigs, branches and even logs. Based on ana-

tomical research (Joksimović et al. 1997) the silicified wood

has the structure of fir (Abies sp.). The predominant form of

silica in silicified wood is opal, while chalcedony is less fre-

quent. The wood structure is usually well preserved (in sawn

and polished slabs wood nodes are easily noticeable —

Fig. 4J). In some specimens it is very hard to distinguish

macroscopically the original structure in cross-sections, al-

though the outer shape of wood is completely preserved. The

colour of silicified wood is usually brown, black, grey and

white. Silicified wood is mostly opaque to slightly translu-

cent. Common opal which occurs separately (not related to

silicified wood) is generally of the same colour as silicified

wood with the exception that they can also be green (grass

green — Fig. 4C). Cutting and polishing of both silicified

wood and opal has proven that they can be lapidary raw ma-

terial of good quality.

Goleš Mt. (Glavica deposit)

In weathering crust of the Goleš ultramafic massif, veins

and veinlets of opal and chalcedony of infiltration origin oc-

cur in the Glavica deposit. This is, at the same time, Ni-Co

and stockwork magnesite deposit.

The deposit is located in the furthest southwestern part of

the Goleš peridotite massif within a larger relic of weathering

crust on peridotite (harzburgite). The thickness of the weathe-

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, 2016, 67, 3, 211–222

ring crust ranges from 30–60 m with a clear vertical zona-

tion. From the surface downwards the following zones occur:

1) zone of quartz-opal masses, 2) goethite zone, 3) smectite

(nontronite) zone with nickel silicates and 4) zone of partially

disintegrated harzburgite (Maksimović et al. 1994).

Gem minerals (opal and chalcedony) occur in the form of

small veins, with thickness of 1–8 cm in weathering crust

zones 2, 3 and 4 (Malešević et al. 1985). The most attractive

of gem varieties from the Glavica deposit are chrysoprase

and praseopal (Fig. 4K). Their colour originates from admix-

tures of Ni-silicates and Ni-sepiolite (Maksimović et al.

1994). Both chrysoprase and praseopal have the same colour

and it is impossible to distinguish them macroscopically.

Praseopal is much more common than chrysoprase. Some

praseopal is hydrophane and can change colour and transpa-

rency with loss of water.

Apart from green opal and chalcedony, particularly inte-

resting varieties are dendritic opals (Fig. 4L), with white,

green and bluish base colour. They can be opaque (milky

white with manganese dendrites), translucent to almost

transparent. Other opaque opals can display several shades

of brown, and yellow. Chalcedony usually has very attractive

orange colour variety.

Lapidary processing of gem minerals (opal and chryso-

prase) from the Glavica deposit revealed very good results.

As expected for this type of gemstone raw material, the best

form of cutting is en cabochon whether in standard (round,

oval, rectangular, Fig. 4K) or free designer forms (Fig. 4L).

Lece

One of the most significant gemstone-bearing regions in

Serbia is the Lece volcanic complex which is situated in the

southern part of Serbia and covers an area of over 700 km

The most characteristic deposits of this area are: Rasovača,

Bučumet, Vrtače and Kameno Rebro. This volcanic com-

plex, formed as a result of Tertiary volcanic (intermediate)

activity, is a part of the Serbo-Macedonian metallogenic

province or Lece–Chalkidiki metallogenic zone (Janković,

1990; Serafimovski, 2000). It comprises mostly andesite

rocks and their pyroclastic equivalents (Pešut 1976).

The gemstone deposits of the Lece volcanic complex are

represented by hydrothermal (epithermal quartz-brecciated

zones and quartz/agate veins and telethermal deposits — sili-

ceous sinters and volcanic agates), as well as elluvial, dellu-

vial, prolluvial and alluvial placers, which are created by

degradation of the primary endogene deposits (Miladinović

et al. 2010; Miladinović 2012).

The mineral composition of gemstone is mainly represented

by quartz/amethyst (Fig. 3O), chalcedony (“length-fast” and

“length-slow”, Fig. 3L and N) and jasper (mixture of quartz

and chalcedony, Fig. 3K and M). Numerous subvarieties (re-

garding colour and textural characteristics) of chalcedony

(agate, carnelian, sard, black chalcedony, blue chalcedony,

picture, and moss), jasper (red, brown, picture jasper in varie-

gated colour variations, landscape jasper) and quartz (ame-

thyst and rock crystal) were determined (Miladinović 2012).

Rasovača deposit belongs to the group of hydrothermal

(epithermal) gemstone deposits spatially related to brecciated

quartz veins. This is one of most important deposits in the

Lece volcanic complex. Gemstones in this deposit occur in

the same fracture zone 6 km long together with Pb, Zn, Ag

and Au mineralization (Lece underground mine). Intensive

tectonic activity made space for the circulation of hydrother-

mal solutions which deposited not only galena, sphalerite,

pyrite and gold but gem minerals as well. Precious silica

minerals are represented by amethyst, amethyst-agate, and

agate. Red jasper appears only in small quantities. Amethyst

is characterized by a fine dark purple colour (Fig. 4M).

Agate is represented by concentric bands of white, grey,

bluish, yellow, brown and red chalcedony (Fig. 4N).

Bučumet is the best preserved primary telethermal (sili-

ceous sinter) deposit within the Lece volcanic complex. In

the succession of andesite lava flows and pyroclastic ma-

terial, silica masses formed as plate-like ore bodies. These

masses are the result of depositing silica around thermal

springs and geysers. Siliceous masses made of fibrous chal-

cedony, granular quartz and relict opal, have very heteroge-

neous colour varieties. Basically, a very wide range of

colours appears in a short range. Chalcedony is represented

by both variegated and uniform colour varieties of white,

bluish, grey, brown, red and black. Jasper is yellowish-

brown to reddish-brown.

The Vrtače and Kameno Rebro deposits are placer type de-

posits. While Vrtače is an eluvial deposit in pyroclastic ma-

terial with partially preserved primary ore body, Kameno

Rebro is a completely delluvial deposit formed outside the

volcanic complex in the surrounding Proterozoic metamor-

phic complex. Gem minerals which occur in these two de-

posits are of the same type as in the Bučumet — chalcedony

and jasper (Fig. 4O). It is assumed that the material in the

Kameno Rebro deposit originates mostly from the eroded

part of the Bučumet deposit.

Discussion and conclusion

Although Serbian gemstone resources are insufficiently

explored, over 150 gemstone deposits and occurrences have

been recorded, most of which are made of silica minerals.

They belong to gemstone mineral resources of lower market

value. Mainly ore bodies are close to the surface and exploi-

tation of some of deposits could start very fast. The cause of

the fact that not a single mine is operating at the moment lies

not only in lack of tradition in the field but also in rather un-

supportive legislation.

For its size Serbia has very diverse geology which enhances

its gemstone perspective. Almost every big geotectonic unit

has the potential to yield gemstone deposits of different

genetic types. Five genetic types of gemstone deposits deter-

mined so far in Serbia are: hydrothermal, pegmatite-pneuma-

tolitic, infiltration deposits within weathering crust of

ultramafics, sedimentary — placer and metamorphic deposits.

The Tertiary volcano-plutonic complexes of the Serbo-

Macedonian metallogenic province are of major importance

with numerous hydrothermal gemstone deposits (mainly sili-

ca minerals). Those complexes usually form metallogenic

subunits of Serbo-Macedonian province: Lece-Chalkidiki

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, 2016, 67, 3, 211–222

zone, Šumadija zone, Besna Kobila-Osogovo zone and

Kopaonik zone. The most interesting volcanic complex

regarding the number of discovered gemstone deposits is the

Lece andesitic massif.

Ultramafic rocks in the Jurassic ophiolite complexes of the

Vardar zone possess significant gemstone resources poten-

tial, confirmed by good results from geological exploration.

There are especially numerous gemstone deposits in Šumadi-

ja metallogenic zone of Serbo-Macedonian metallogenic

province, but the entire Vardar zone of the Serbo-Mace-

donian province has a good potential in the domain of ultra-

mafic complexes. Significant gemstone deposits are

discovered in three serpentinite zones of the Fruška Gora

district as well as in the Šumadija metallogenic zone and Ko-

paonik metallogenic zone. The underexplored but very inte-

resting and rather large ultramafic complex of

Maljen-Suvobor has good quality jasper and chalcedony de-

posits. The ultramafic complexes of the Dinaric metallogenic

province possess the highest potential for gemstone deposits.

The Zlatibor ultramafic massif is the most interesting in that

province.

The granitoid intrusives in Serbia are present in all metal-

logenic provinces except the Dacian. The age of those intru-

sives ranges from Permo-Carboniferous to Tertiary. Cer and

Bukulja yielded the best gem quality minerals

(beryl — aquamarine) within pegmatites and related placer

deposits.

The Carpatho-Balkan metallogenic province seems to be

the least promising based on the number of so far discovered

deposits within it. This is in strong contrast to the positive

magmatic, structural, lithological and other metallogenic cri-

teria, suggesting high potential for gemstones. The reason for

the small number of gemstone localities is that gemstone

prospecting has never been done in eastern Serbia. Another

reason that speaks in favour of better gemstone possibilities

in that part of Serbia is the existence of agate deposits in the

Romanian and Bulgarian part of the Carpatho-Balkan metal-

logenic province (Iancu et al. 2009; Cincov & Banusev

2010).

We consider this metallogenic analysis of Serbian gem-

stone deposits and occurrences as a good starting point for

further metallogenic studies in Serbia as well as in neigh-

bouring countries, especially in those that share the same

metallogenic units. Based on the current level of exploration

we can establish several similar gemstone deposits in the

Carpatho-Balkan metallogenic region, particularly for the

most abundant type of Serbian gemstone mineral resources

— silica gemstone minerals. There is a high level of con-

gruence between infiltration type deposits of opal formed in

weathering crust on ultramafics: Glavica at Goleš Mountain

in south Serbia and Hodkovce in eastern Slovakia (Illášová &

Spišiak 2010). Other good examples are the epithermal

jasper deposits in Tertiary andesites: Magura Hill in Southern

Apuseni Mountains in Romania (Constantina & Pop 2003) and

Bučumet and Vrtače in Lece volcanic complex in Serbia.

Acknowledgement: This research was partly financed by

the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of

Serbia, Projects OI176006 and OI176016.

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