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, AUGUST 2015, 66, 4, 311—329 doi: 10.1515/geoca-2015-0028
Assessing provenance of Upper Cretaceous siliciclastics
using spectral
γγγγγ-ray record
DANIEL ŠIMÍČEK
1!
and ONDŘEJ BÁBEK
1,2
1
Department of Geology, Palacký University, 17. listopadu 1192/12, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic;
!
daniel.simicek@upol.cz
2
Department of Geological Sciences, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37 Brno, Czech Republic; babek@prfnw.upol.cz
(Manuscript received January 13, 2015; accepted in revised form March 12, 2015)
Abstract: The relationship between contents of clay minerals/grain size and spectral
γ-ray record (concentrations of K, U
and Th) in sediments is used for interpretation of sedimentary facies in wire-line logs. However, this approach is often
complicated by the multi-component nature of mineralogically immature siliciclastics. As mineralogy of the source mate-
rial and grain-size sorting during transport both contribute to the detrital composition of the final sediment, a joint study of
facies and outcrop
γ-ray spectra can potentially make the latter an effective tool in provenance studies. This paper provides
comparison of outcrop
γ-ray data and detailed facies mapping with mineral and chemical composition of the rocks (modal
composition; transparent heavy mineral assemblages; WDX SEM chemistry of minerals) and interprets them in terms of
provenance changes. We studied the Upper Cretaceous, synorogenic siliciclastic sediments of the Mazák and Godula
Formations (Silesian Unit of the Western Carpathians flysch belt). Decreasing mineral maturity of the studied sandstones
is consistent with provenance change from craton interior – (Mazák Formation) to transitional continental and recycled
orogen sources (Godula Formation). Two major phases of K, U and Th concentration shifts, which occurred close to the
Mazák/Godula Formation and Middle/Upper Godula Members boundaries, are consistent with changes in main detrital
modes. These trends indicate gradually accelerated influx of material derived from high-grade metamorphic and plutonic
rocks during deposition of the Mazák and Godula Formations. These changes are interpreted as reflecting a gradual exhu-
mation and erosion of deeper crustal levels of the source area, the Silesian ridge.
Key words: Western Carpathians, gravity-flow sediments, geochemistry, heavy minerals,
γ-ray spectrometry, provenance.
Introduction
Gamma-ray (
γ-ray) spectrometry (GRS) is a widely used
petrophysical method, which is particularly useful for identi-
fication of facies, stratigraphic correlation and sequence-
stratigraphic interpretations both below and on the surface
(Van Wagoner et al. 1990; Slatt et al. 1992; Catuneanu 2006;
Šimíček & Bábek 2015). The fundamental principle standing
behind these applications is the effect of variable concentra-
tions of K, Th (and sometimes U) bearing clay minerals and
non-radioactive, sand-sized quartz grains in siliciclastic sedi-
ments, which render higher radioactivity to muddy sedi-
ments and low radioactivity to sands (Doveton 1994; Rider
1999). However, the multi-component nature of chemically
poorly mature sediments complicates the use of GRS as a di-
rect proxy of grain size, as numerous minerals typically con-
tained in different grain size fractions can act as carriers of
K, Th and U. As examples, we can mention silt-sized heavy
minerals (zircon, apatite, monazite, thorite, etc.) as carriers
of U and Th, clay minerals with highly variable contents of
K (kaolinite, smectite, illite, etc.) and sand-sized K-feld-
spars, albite and micas with relatively high contents of K
(Rider 1999; Svendsen & Hartley 2001; Šimíček et al.
2012). Mineral inclusions, organic matter and chemical pre-
cipitates further complicate the overall picture (cf. Rider
1999). Consequently, spectral
γ-ray data can be interpreted
in terms of sediment grain-size only with the knowledge of
mineral composition and, the other way round, spectral
γ-ray
combined with grain-size data can be used as a proxy for
changes in mineralogy and chemistry of detrital sediments
(Šimíček et al. 2012). Deep-marine flysch siliciclastics of
remnant and foreland basins, often characterized by low
chemical maturity are particularly useful for studies of mate-
rial provenance because their modal composition closely re-
flects the rock composition of their source area (Miall 1995;
Critelli et al. 1997; Šimíček et al. 2012).
This paper is focused on the Upper Cretaceous deep-ma-
rine siliciclastics of the Mazák and Godula Formations,
which represent well-exposed parts of the Silesian Unit, in
the Outer Western Carpathians of Central Europe. The thrust
sheets of the Silesian Unit are inverted relicts of sedimentary
fill of the Silesian basin, which formed a part of the Outer
Carpathians basin system. Synorogenic sedimentation in the
Silesian basin commenced with the Late Cretaceous com-
pressive tectonic regime in the Outer Carpathians (Golonka
et al. 2000; Oszczypko 2004). The Silesian Unit is now pre-
served as a rootless nappe (Stráník et al. 1993; Picha et al.
2006). Due to the detachment of the inverted Silesian basin
from its basement in the Miocene (Oszczypko 1999), any
information about the source area in the basin are based entire-
ly on studies of chemical, mineral and pebble composition
(Książkiewicz 1962; Unrug 1968; Wieser 1985; Ślączka
1998; Golonka et al. 2000; Hanžl et al. 2000; Michalik et al.
2004; Poprawa et al. 2004). The sediment composition, fa-
cies and paleocurrent data indicate a predominant transport
of material from the hypothetical Silesian ridge, which was
situated on the southern margin of the basin (Książkiewicz
1962; Menčík et al. 1983; Oszczypko 2004; Słomka et al.
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2004; Malata et al. 2006). Periods of increased sediment sup-
ply in the Outer Carpathians basins, which are indicated by
the presence of clasts of “exotic rocks” (Unrug 1968; Grzebyk
& Lesczyński 2006), always coincided with the main tec-
tonic phases of the Carpathian orogeny (Książkiewicz 1977;
Poprawa et al. 2006). The changes in depositional style of
the siliciclastic turbidites therefore coincided with the source
area changes, which in turn might have been recorded in the
γ-ray characteristics of the sediments. A detailed spectral γ-ray
logging and facies mapping can be used to trace the prove-
nance changes related to important geotectonic events (cf.
Šimíček et al. 2012). The aim of this paper is to achieve an in-
sight into the relationship between facies, modal composition
and
γ-ray spectra in deep-marine siliciclastics and contribute
to the discussion about the Late Cretaceous synorogenic evo-
lution of the Outer Western Carpathians (cf. Menčík et al.
1983; Kováč et al. 1998; Golonka et al. 2000; Plašienka 2000;
Haas & Csaba 2004).
Geological setting and stratigraphy
The Silesian Unit constitutes a part of the Menilite-Krosno
group of superficial thrust sheets of the Western Carpathians
flysch belt (Golonka et al. 2006). It plunges beneath the front
of the Magura thrust sheets to the east and southeast and
overlaps the flysch sediments of the Subsilesian nappe and
Miocene deposits of the Carpathian Foredeep to the north-
west (Lexa et al. 2000; Picha et al. 2006). Its sediment suc-
cession spanning Upper Jurassic to Lower Miocene, which is
Fig. 1. Geological sketch of the Silesian Unit in the Czech Republic. 1 – Čeladná, 2 – Mazák Quarry, 3 – Ondřejník 2, 4 – Ondřejník 1,
5 – Trojanovice Quarry, 6 – Mořkov, 7 – Zubří 1, 8 – Zubří 2, 9 – Šance, 10 – Malinová, 11 – Pustevny 1, 12 – Pustevny 2,
13 – Magurka 2, 14 – Magurka 1, 15 – Čeladenka, 16 – Horní Rozpité, 17 – Pustevny 3.
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up to 6 km thick, represents the most complete stratigraphic
record in the Outer Carpathians Silesian basin. It was inverted
and finally thrust over the Bohemian Massif foreland during
the Miocene Styrian tectonic phase (Oszczypko 1999; Picha
et al. 2006). We can distinguish three facies domains in the
Silesian Unit: (I) Godula representing basin floor deposits,
(II) Baška representing base of the slope sediments and
(III) Kelč facies domain representing slope facies (Eliáš 1970;
Menčík et al. 1983). The Godula facies domain, which is most
extensive, is composed of the Vendryně, Hradiště, Veřovice,
Lhota, Mazák, Godula, Istebna, Rožnov, Menilite and the
youngest Krosno Formations (Matějka & Roth 1954; Eliáš
1970, 2002; Menčík et al. 1983; Eliáš et al. 2003). The Upper
Cretaceous Mazák and Godula Formations (focus of this pa-
per; Fig. 1) with maximum thickness of 3 km represent the
best-exposed part of the Godula facies domain (Roth 1980).
The Mazák Formation (formerly “Variegated Godula
Beds” – Menčík et al. 1983) of Middle Cenomanian—Conia-
cian (Skupien et al. 2009) is equivalent to the “Variegated
shales” in Poland (Golonka 1981). The overlying Godula
Formation is composed of Lower Godula (Santonian—Lower
Campanian), Middle Godula (Lower—Upper Campanian) and
Upper (Uppermost Campanian) Godula Members (Menčík
& Pešl 1955; Skupien & Mohamed 2008). The biostratigraphy
of both formations is based on agglutinated foraminifers and
dinoflagellates (Olszewska 1984; Skupien & Mohamed 2008;
Skupien & Smaržová 2009; Skupien et al. 2009). An alterna-
tive stratigraphic scheme is based on heavy-mineral zones
(Roth 1980). The lower zircon zone, subdivided into rutile-
zircon subzone and subzone of mixed assemblages, corre-
sponds to the Mazák Formation, Lower Member and lower
part of the Middle Member of the Godula Formation. Zircon,
tourmaline and rutile predominate in the heavy minerals as-
semblages of this zone. The upper garnet zone with predomi-
nance of garnets, zircon and rutile comprises the upper part of
the Middle and the Upper Members of the Godula Formation
(Fig. 2).
The Mazák Formation is composed predominantly of red
pelagic mudstones (oceanic red beds sensu Hu et al. 2005),
which alternate with green-grey mudstones and thin layers of
fine-grained turbidite sandstones (Golonka 1981; Menčík et
al. 1983; Lemańska 2005; Jiang et al. 2009). This pelagic to
hemipelagic sedimentary succession (Koszarski 1963) locally
alternates with thick-bedded, medium- to coarse-grained sand-
stones and fine-grained conglomerates (Ostravice sandstone),
which are interpreted as sediments of prograding submarine
fans (Eliáš 1995; Picha et al. 2006). The Godula Formation
comprises predominantly deep-marine gravity-flow deposits
(Geroch & Koszarski 1988). The Lower and Upper Members
are both characterized as predominantly thin-bedded succes-
sions of grey mudstones and fine- to medium-grained, glauco-
nite-rich sandstones (Picha et al. 2006; Skupien & Smaržová
2009). They are interpreted as sediments of the middle zone
(channel-to-lobe transition) and outer zone (lobe and wedge
Fig. 2. Stratigraphic chart (incl. GPS coordinates of localities) of the Mazák and Godula Formations modified after Roth (1980), Menčík et
al. (1983), Bralower et al. (1995), Skupien & Mohamed (2008).
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margin) of a sand-rich submarine fan (Menčík et al. 1983;
Słomka 1995; Eliáš 2000). The Middle Member represents a
medium- to thick-bedded sandstone succession with minor
occurrence of heterolithic facies and mudstones, which was
deposited by various gravity flows in the middle zone (distrib-
utory channels, lobes) of a sand-rich submarine fan system
(Eliáš 1970; Menčík et al. 1983; Leszczynski 1989; Słomka
1995; Picha et al. 2006; Skupien et al. 2009).
It is assumed that the Silesian basin was isolated from other
Outer Carpathians depocenters by two morphological eleva-
tions, the Baška ridge to north and the Silesian ridge to the
south (Menčík et al. 1983). Paleocurrent data, facies distri-
bution and clast composition data indicate that the sediments
of the Godula facies domain were sourced from areas situated
along the southern border of the basin (Unrug 1968; Golonka
et al. 2000; Picha et al. 2006) and further dispersed by bot-
tom currents in a basin-axis direction (Eliáš 1970; Oszczypko
2006). The Silesian ridge consisted of Cadomian to Variscan
crystalline basement and its Upper Paleozoic to Mesozoic
sedimentary cover (Unrug 1968; Słomka et al. 2004; Golonka
et al. 2008). The intensity of tectonic activity in the Silesian
ridge (Golonka & Krobicki 2006) along with the tectonic
basin subsidence (Roth 1980; Menčík et al. 1983) and global
sea-level changes (Słomka 1995; Oszczypko 2004) are con-
sidered as the major causes of switching between coarse-
grained deposits of prograding and laterally migrating
submarine fans and fine-grained background hemipelagic
sedimentation (Eliáš 1970). Modal composition of sand-
stones of the Godula Formation indicates a gradual decrease
in the input from sedimentary and meta-sedimentary sources
and increased supply of high-grade metamorphic and plut-
onic detritus up-section (Unrug 1968; Krystek 1973; Žůrková
1975; Eliáš 2000; Grzebyk & Lesczyński 2006). This trend
is explained by progressive exhumation of structurally deep-
er crustal parts of the Silesian ridge (Unrug 1968; Słomka et
al. 2004).
Material and methods
Concentrations of K, U and Th were measured using an
RS-230 Super Spec (GEORADIS s.r.o., Czech Republic) por-
table
γ-ray spectrometer. The tool is equipped with 2×2”
(103 cm
3
) BGO (Bi
4
Ge
3
O
12
) scintillation detector. The
counting time 240-s provides accuracy for K, U and Th con-
centrations assessment ± 10 % in low to moderate radioactive
sediments (cf. Svendsen & Hartley 2001). The combined
error due to ambient conditions and the instrument for re-
peated measurements was estimated to be less than ± 7.5 %
for each element. Values of the standard
γ-ray (SGR) were
calculated using the Schlumberger NGT-A formula (see Rider
1999; Šimíček et al. 2012, p. 52). 525 outcrop GRS points
were measured at 17 sections throughout the Mazák and
Godula Formation (Figs. 1, 2). Outcrops were logged with
15-cm sampling interval, which corresponds to commonly
used resolution of wire-line logs (Doveton 1994; Rider
1999). The measurement practice followed the recommended
detector – outcrop geometry as described by Svendsen &
Hartley (2001) and Šimíček & Bábek (2015). The GRS mea-
surements were accompanied by detailed facies logging. The
deep-water facies classification schemes of Lowe (1982),
Pickering et al. (1986), Ghibaudo (1992), Mutti (1992) and
Shanmugam (2006) were used in this paper. The stratigraphic
position of sections within the Mazák and Godula Forma-
tions was inferred from the geological maps (Jurková &
Roth 1967; Baldík et al. 2011) and previous investigations
(Eliáš 1970, 1979; Roth 1980; Menčík et al. 1983).
The modal composition of sandstones was studied in 36
thin sections using the point-counting technique of Chayes
(1956) with 300 points per thin section. The Gazzi-Dickinson
method was used for statistical processing of the composi-
tional data (Ingersoll et al. 1984; Dickinson & Lawton 2001;
Caracciolo et al. 2012). Individual grains and mineral consti-
tuents of rock fragments in the grain size range 0.063—2 mm
were described as particular mineral types. Lithic clasts con-
sisting of grains smaller than 0.063 mm were described as
rock types (Dickinson 1985). The following categories were
used: monocrystalline (Qm) and polycrystalline (Qp) quartz,
potassium feldspars (Fk), plagioclases (Fp), sedimentary and
meta-sedimentary lithic clasts (Ls), plutonic and meta-plu-
tonic lithic clasts (Lm), volcanic and meta-volcanic lithic
clasts (Lv) and unidentified lithic clasts (Li). Modal composi-
tional data were plotted in Q-F-L provenance ternary diagrams
of Dickinson et al. (1983). Grain size distribution was mea-
sured from the a-axis of one hundred randomly selected grains
per thin section (30 samples) using JMicroVision image anal-
ysis toolbox (Roduit 2008).
The provenance of clastic material of sandstones was stud-
ied from heavy mineral assemblages (50 samples). Heavy
mineral concentrates were separated from the grain-size frac-
tion 0.25—0.5 µm by separating in 1,1,2,2-tetrabromethane
(C
2
H
2
Br
4
) with density 2.96 g/cm
3
. Specific minerals were
determined using binocular microscope NIKON C-PS and
polarizing microscope CarlZeiss Jena. Percentage shares
were assessed semi-quantitatively by comparison with dia-
grams of percentage assessment of Tucker (2003).
The chemical composition of mineral carriers of radioac-
tive K, U and Th was investigated using the electron micro-
probe Cameca SX100 at the Department of Geological
Science, Masaryk University of Brno. Eight thin sections of
sandstones coated with graphite were analysed in WDS and
EDS mode. The voltage 15 keV, current 10 nA and diameter
of beam 4 µm were used for analyses of framework grains.
The parameters of analyses of accessory heavy minerals
were 15 keV, 20—40 nA and 1—2 µm.
Phase analyses of 20 oriented samples of mudstones using
X-ray diffractometer STOE Stadi P in transmission mode,
with primary Ge (111) monochromator, linear PSD detector
and Co anode were carried out at the Department of Geologi-
cal Science, Masaryk University of Brno.
Results
Facies and facies stacking patterns
Nine sedimentary facies were identified in the Mazák and
Godula Formations based on detailed lithological descrip-
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Table 1:
Facies
classification
of
sediments
of
the
Mazák
and
Godula
Formations
and
interpretation
of
depositional
processes.
tions (cf. Pickering et al. 1986; Tucker 2003).
They comprise the grain-size range from clast-
supported conglomerates to mudstones (Ta-
ble 1). Bed thicknesses vary from 3 m in some
conglomerate and sandstone facies to several
cm in the mudstones and fine-grained sand-
stones. Individual beds can sometimes have
gradual contacts, usually on tops, but most fre-
quently, they are sharp-based, flat or irregular
with presence of various types of sole marks
and bioturbation. The beds are usually mas-
sive or normally graded in the coarse-grained
facies. Various types of internal stratification
and lamination (planar, cross, convolute) are
common particularly in the fine-grained facies
(Table 1). The F1 facies are interpreted as de-
posits of hyperconcentrated gravity flows (or
sandy debris flows sensu Shanmugam 2006)
based on the presence of large floating clasts,
inverse grading at bed bases and gravel- to
coarse-sand lithology (Słomka 1995; Mulder
& Alexander 2000; Gani 2004; Shanmugam
2006). The beds of facies F2 (and partly F3a),
with predominantly coarse-sand lithology,
massive bedding with graded top parts, pres-
ence of traction carpets near the bed bases,
dish structures and frequent amalgamation,
can be interpreted as deposits of high-density
turbidity currents (Ghibaudo 1992; Mutti
1992). In particular, the basal parts of F3a
beds correspond to Ta(b) divisions of Bouma
sequence (Bouma 1962) or the S2 and S3 divi-
sions of Lowe sequence (Lowe 1982). Beds
interpreted as low-density turbidity current de-
posits (F4a—b, top parts of F3a) are character-
ized by sheet-like bed geometry, common
presence of sole marks and T(b)cd divisions of
the Bouma sequence (Mutti & Ricci Lucci
1972; Mutti 1977). Suspension fallout deposi-
tion is inferred for beds with predominant
mudstone lithology (F6 facies), which can al-
ternate with thin siltstone lenses and laminae
representing distal, low-density turbidites or
bottom-current reworked deposits (Bouma
1962; Stow 1979; Einsele 2000).
The proportion of individual facies (in thick-
ness %) markedly differs across the strati-
graphy (Table 2). Fine-grained and heterolithic
facies (F4a alternating with F5 and F6) and lo-
cal, thick wedge-shaped or lenticular sand-
stone-to-conglomerate bodies (facies F2 and
F1a—b) of the Ostravice sandstone predominate
in the Mazák Formation. A similar distribution
of facies can be observed in the Lower and
Upper Members of the Godula Formation,
where thin-bedded, silty-to-clayey heterolithic
facies (F6 and F4a—b) predominate over coarse-
to-medium grained sandstone beds (facies F2
and F3a—b). Noteworthy features include the
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local coarse-grained sand bodies of the Pustevny sandstone
in the Upper Member, which share similar facies characteris-
tics and distribution with the Ostravice sandstone. Compared
to the other members of the Godula Formation, the Middle
Member is characterized by moderate prevalence of the thick
sandstones (facies F2 and F3a) over the heterolithic facies
succession (F4a—b and F6).
γγγγγ-ray data from outcrops and the effect of facies on distri-
bution of radioactive elements
The average total
γ-ray values from the whole dataset are
86.3 nGy.h
—1
(
σ 26.09) dose rate and 116.3 API (σ 36.10)
standard
γ-rays (SGR). The average concentrations of radio-
active elements are 2.8 % of K (
σ 0.9), 2.8 ppm of U (σ 1.1)
and 11.7 ppm of Th (
σ 3.9). The contributions of Th, K
and U to the total radioactivity (SGR) are roughly balanced,
as indicated by statistically significant positive correlations
(linear regression coefficient R
2
= 0.94 for SGR:Th; R
2
= 0.86
for SGR:K and R
2
= 0.81 for SGR:U). The radioactive ele-
ments K, Th and U show various degrees of mutual correla-
tion in particular lithostratigraphic units: R
2
= 0.5—0.8 for
Th:U, R
2
= 0.3—0.9 for Th:K, R
2
= 0.1—0.6 for K:U
(Fig. 3). It is noteworthy that the K/Th and K/U
ratios (indicated by linear regression line in
Fig. 3) are markedly shifted in the Upper Godula
Member as compared to the other stratigraphic
levels. Th/U ratios range from 2 to 7 in most of
samples, and the average value is 4.2. We ob-
served only very low variation of Th/U values be-
tween particular facies at the same stratigraphic
levels.
Siliciclastic sediments of the Mazák Formation
usually have low radioactivity while the Godula
Formation shows moderate to low radioactivity
(Table 3, Fig. 4). Conglomerate and sandstone fa-
cies (F1a—b, F2, F3a, F3b) have average SGR val-
ues of 106.5 API and average concentrations of
K: 2.6 %, U: 2.6 ppm and Th: 10.6 ppm. Hetero-
lithic facies, siltstones and mudstones (F4a—b, F5,
Table 2: Average distribution (in thickness %) of facies (see Table 1) in the
lithostratigraphic units of the Mazák and Godula Formations.
S
trat
igr
ap
h
y
Mazák Formation
Godula Formation
Ostravice
sandstone
Variegated
Godula
Beds
Lower
Member
Middle
Member
Middle to
Upper
Member
Upper
Member
Upper
Member
Facies
Pustevny
sandstone
F1a
9.4
–
–
–
–
–
2.6
F1b
32.3 –
–
–
–
–
31.3
F2
55.2 –
18.9 28.7
7.6 11.7 25.3
F3a
3.1
–
2.4
8.3
11.1
15.4
23.2
F3b
–
–
8.5
7.2
2.8
15.4
–
F4a
–
41.7 28.1 27.2 32.5 16.6
2.6
F4b
–
–
15.9
10.7
3.0
5.9
–
F5
–
35.6
9.8
4.4
6.6
7.4
–
F6
–
22.7 19.5 13.6 36.3 27.6 15.0
Fig. 3. Bivariate plots of K, U and Th concentrations in the Mazák Formation (MF) and the Lower Member (LM), Middle Member (MM)
and Upper Member (UM) of the Godula Formation, including linear regression lines and values of R
2
.
F6) usually show higher radioactivity than stratigraphically
equivalent coarse-grained facies. Their average SGR values
are 130.8 API and average concentrations of K: 3.1 %,
U: 3.3 ppm and Th: 13.3 ppm. This facies dependence of the
total as well as spectral radioactivity values is maintained in
all the stratigraphic units (Table 3). The biggest disproportion
between coarse- and fine-grained facies was observed in the
Mazák Formation, where sandstone facies reach only 35 % of
the values obtained in mudstones. In contrast, sandstone facies
in the Upper Godula Member reach up to 85 % of the values
from the mudstones.
No statistical correlation was found between the concen-
trations of K, Th and mean grain size of sandstones
(R
2
= 0.11; R
2
= 0.12, respectively).
Stratigraphic distribution of outcrop spectral
γγγγγ-ray data
The facies distribution of the
γ-ray data reveals that the
differences between mean SGR values and K, U and Th
concentrations in the coarse- and fine-grained facies are
lower at some stratigraphic levels than at others (Table 3).
The highest contrast between facies and, therefore, the best
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sensitivity of
γ-rays to facies is observed in the Mazák For-
mation, where mudstones (K: 2.0—3.5 %, U: 1.2—3.9 ppm,
Th: 7.4—13.9 ppm) are significantly more radioactive than
sandstones (K: 0.6—1.7 %, U: 0.4—1.6 ppm, Th: 2.0—5.8 ppm).
We can see an equally good sensitivity to facies in the lower
part of the Middle and partly in the Lower Godula Members
(Fig. 4). On the other hand, there is a large overlap between
GRS value ranges from sandstones + conglomerates and
mudstones + heterolithics in the upper part of the Middle
Member and the Upper Godula Member (Table 3), which in-
dicates lower sensitivity of
γ-ray spectra to facies and lower
sediment maturity, as compared to the underlying strata.
Distribution of GRS data in the proximal-to-distal facies
spectrum for different stratigraphic levels is shown in Fig. 5.
The principal stratigraphic trends in GRS can be documented
in the thick-bedded, coarse-grained sandstones of facies F2. In
the Mazák Formation, the mean concentrations of U (1.5 ppm)
and Th (3.3 ppm) in the facies F2 are low. In the same facies,
the mean concentrations are much higher (U: 2.5 ppm,
Th: 10.5 ppm) in the Lower Member and even higher
(U: 4.5 ppm, Th: 12.5 ppm) in the Upper Godula Member
(Fig. 5). The other facies also reveal this increase of U and Th
concentrations in the stratigraphically younger strata, which
probably indicates change in the detrital composition of sedi-
ments. On the other hand, a great variability of K distribution
causes the poor facies-sensitivity of the Th/K ratio, which is
considered a good proxy of lithology in many carbonate and
siliciclastic systems (Fertl 1979; Kumpan et al. 2014; Šimíček
& Bábek 2015). However, high Th/K ratios are effective in
distinguishing between the Upper Godula Member and the un-
derlying stratigraphic levels (Figs. 3, 5).
Stratigraphic distribution of GRS data in sandstones shows
two prominent levels, which are marked by an increase in U
and Th concentrations and Th/K ratios (Fig. 5). The former
one is situated at the base of the Lower Godula Member
while the latter is situated at the base of the Upper Godula
Member. There is another significant increase of SGR and
concentrations of U and Th within the Middle Member. The
only exception is the Pustevny sandstone, where U and Th
concentrations are markedly lower and K markedly higher
than the mean values in the Upper Member (Table 3). These
changes in
γ-ray spectra are linked with variations in the
modal composition of sandstones and they probably indicate
significant provenance changes.
Modal composition of siliciclastics and stratigraphic trends
The majority of samples obtained from the Mazák and
Godula Formations plot within the subarcose and feldspar-
rich lithic arenite fields in Folk’s classification diagrams
Table 3: Mean (bold), minimum and maximum values and standard deviation (italics) of outcrop GRS data and their facies and stratigraphic
distribution. SST + CG – Sandstones and conglomerates (F1a—b, F2, F3a, F3b facies), SLST + MDS – Heterolithics, siltstones and mud-
stones (F4a—b, F5, F6 facies), OS – Ostravice sandstone, VGB – Variegated Godula Beds (oceanic red beds), LM – Lower Godula Mem-
ber, MM – Middle Godula Member, MM—UM – Aggregated data from Middle and Upper Godula Member, UM – Upper Godula Member.
Whole dataset
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
Mazák
Formation
Godula Formation
LM MM
MM–UM
UM
SST+
C
G
SLTS+
M
D
S
SST+
C
G (OS)
SLST+
M
DS
(VGB
)
SST+
C
G
SLTS+
M
D
S
SST+
C
G
SLTS+
M
D
S
SST+
C
G
SLTS+
M
D
S
SST+
C
G (PS)
SST+
C
G
SLTS+
M
D
S
SGR
(API)
Mean
106.5 130.8 39.6 117.7 125.5 171.6 81.1 139.9 128.1 148.2
51.1 114.4 140.8
Min.
25.8
73.0
25.8
73.0
95.8
121.6
57.1
127.4
78.0
104.3
37.1
62.5
77.7
Max.
176.2 194.4 55.0 140.5 163.6 194.4 138.3 166.7 176.2 186.5 137.0 169.9 191.2
St. dev.
36.23
23.26
6.78
13.47
20.37
27.12
19.64
12.03
21.74
20.86
26.42
22.96
20.72
K (%
)
Mean
2.60 3.10
1.10 3.00 3.30 4.80 2.40 3.80 3.10 3.75 1.60 2.50 3.05
Min.
0.60
1.40
0.60
2.00
2.50
3.20
1.60
3.40
1.60
2.50
1.00
1.20
1.40
Max.
4.60 5.10
1.70 3.50 4.20 5.10 3.80 4.70 4.60 5.00 4.60 3.50 4.10
St.
dev.
0.89 0.66
0.29 0.28 0.54 0.75 0.43 0.40 0.65 0.59 0.86 0.59 0.58
U (
p
p
m
)
Mean
2.60 3.30
0.80 2.80 2.60 3.10 1.80 3.30 3.10 3.65 1.30 3.15 4.05
Min.
0.40 1.20
0.40 1.20 1.80 2.70 0.50 2.60 1.60 2.60 0.70 1.60 2.20
Max.
5.30 6.00
1.60 3.90 4.00 5.00 3.90 4.00 5.00 4.80 4.60 5.30 6.00
St. dev.
1.05
0.90
0.29
0.66
0.62
0.90
0.68
0.39
0.63
0.64
0.61
0.88
0.84
Th
(
p
p
m
)
Mean
10.60 13.30 3.55 12.00 12.00 16.95 7.70 13.80 12.90 14.80 4.65 12.15 15.25
Min.
2.00 7.40
2.00 7.40 9.40
12.10 4.80
11.50 7.60
10.80 2.60 6.60 8.60
Max.
18.00 20.10 5.80 13.90 17.60 18.80 14.70 16.10 17.70 18.90 10.00 18.00 20.10
St.
dev.
3.94 2.41
0.74 1.53 2.21 2.59 2.27 1.60 2.27 2.04 2.20 2.45 2.19
Th
/K
Mean
3.78 4.12
2.89 4.03 3.70 3.66 3.35 3.56 4.02 3.96 2.85 5.29 5.22
Min.
1.91
2.70
1.94
3.13
2.86
3.38
2.33
2.70
2.85
3.36
1.91
3.47
2.85
Max.
7.63 6.28
6.50 4.96 4.30 3.84 5.47 3.95 7.00 4.74 3.92 7.63 6.28
St.
dev.
0.98 0.74
1.15 0.40 0.38 0.18 0.62 0.33 0.73 0.34 0.43 0.94 0.77
Th
/U
Mean
4.20 4.20
4.40 4.30 4.80 5.13 4.54 4.54 4.00 4.23 3.83 3.88 3.73
Min.
2.00 2.80
2.20 2.90 3.40 3.60 2.50 2.90 2.40 3.03 2.00 3.04 2.84
Max.
11.80 9.40
9.70 9.40 7.20 6.06
11.80 5.35 6.60 6.44 6.50 6.45 6.00
St.
dev.
1.20 1.00
1.70 1.20 0.90 1.02 1.37 0.77 0.80 0.65 1.11 0.71 0.68
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Fig. 4. Combined lithology (incl. facies and sedimentary structures) and GRS logs of selected sections, which represent the Mazák Forma-
tion and particular stratigraphic levels of the Godula Formation.
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(Folk 1974). Samples of quartz arenite and arcose composi-
tion are less common. The average contents of the principal
sandstone components are quartz 71.5 %, feldspars 23.5 %
and lithic clasts 5 %.
In the Gazzi-Dickinson provenance ternary diagrams
(Dickinson et al. 1983), one can see a clear shift from quartz-
rich cratonic sources in the Mazák Formation to predomi-
nantly transitional continental crust sources in the Lower
Member of the Godula Formation, followed by another shift
towards recycled orogenic sources in the Middle and Upper
Members (Fig. 6).
Quartz grains (total quartz, Qt) comprise both monocrys-
talline (Qm; mean 54.6 %) and polycrystalline (Qp; mean
16.9 %) grains. Qm grains with non-undulose extinction pre-
dominate over those with undulose extinction. About 60 %
of Qp grains consist of more than three crystal individuals.
Generally, the contents of Qt decrease throughout the Mazák
and Godula Formations. The highest percentages of Qt
(86.5—88.4 %) were found in the Ostravice sandstone of the
Mazák Formation (see Table 4), in which Qp (24.7—33.8 %)
prevail over Qm grains producing the lowest Qm/Qp ratios
(1.2—1.9) from the whole study area. In the Godula Forma-
tion, the contents of Qt vary between 60.3 % (upper part of
the Middle Member) and 81.6 % (Pustevny sandstone, Up-
per Member), Qm grains significantly prevail over Qp grains
and Qm/Qp ratios generally increase from the Lower Mem-
ber (mean 2.9) toward the Upper Member (mean 4.8).
The feldspar grains (F) comprise potassium feldspars (Fk;
mean 12.5 %) and plagioclases (Fp; mean 10.7 %). K-feld-
spars are mostly represented by un-zoned to slightly zoned
orthoclase grains without alteration or with weak signs of
sericitization. Microcline with typical cross twinning is rare.
Plagioclases (mostly albite) have typical lamellar twinning
while most of the grains are altered by albitization. Perthitic
Fig. 5. Box-and-whisker plots of K, U and Th concentrations in the most abundant facies of the Mazák Formation and the Lower, Middle,
Middle—Upper and Upper Members of the Godula Formation. Notice the progressively increasing U concentrations in facies F2 up-section
(arrow), the markedly low U and Th concentrations in the Mazák Formation and high Th/K values in the Upper Member.
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Fig. 6. Combined diagrams summarizing main provenance changes across the Mazák and Godula Formations (heavy mineral assemblages
in bar plots, sandstone and mudstone components in pie plots and QFL data in Dickinson’s et al. (1983) provenance ternary plots with lo-
gistic normal confidence regions of the population means and 90 %, 95 % and 99 % confidence limits, cf. Weltje 2002).
feldspars are also common. The lowest concentrations of
feldspar grains (F) were found in the Mazák Formation in
which Fp grains prevail over K-feldspars. Total feldspar con-
centrations are highest in the Lower Member and then both
the Fp and Fk contents decrease towards stratigraphically
younger members of the Godula Formation. Except for sev-
eral samples from the Lower Godula Member, Fk prevails
over Fp in most of the Godula Formation (see Table 4).
Lithic clasts (L) consist predominantly of plutonic and
meta-plutonic (Lm) and sedimentary and meta-sedimentary
(Ls) clasts. Volcanic clasts (Lv), represented by very rare
andesite and rhyolite fragments, were only identified in sev-
eral samples from the Mazák Formation (max. 0.7 %). The
Lm group (0.3—13.7 %; mean 4.7 %) consists of fine-grained
granites, gneisses and granulites. The Ls group (0.3—10.0 %;
mean 1.1 %) comprises clasts of limestone, silicite, mud-
stone, siltstone, greenschist, micaschist and phyllite. The
contents of Lm and Ls are relatively low and balanced in the
Mazák Formation, the Lower Godula Member and lower
part of the Middle Godula Member. From the upper part of
the Middle Godula Member upwards, we can observe an in-
creasing abundance of L clasts, in particular the Lm group
(see Table 4). Plutonic rocks (mainly granitoids) predomi-
nate over high-grade metamorphics in the Mazák Formation
and the Lower Godula Member. From the Middle Godula
Member upwards, high-grade metamorphic rocks (mainly
gneisses and granulites) start to predominate. The composi-
tion of Ls group also changes across the stratigraphic col-
umn, with limestone and chert clasts predominating in the
Mazák Formation and pelites and metapelites being more
abundant from the Lower Godula Member upwards.
In addition to Q, F and L clasts, mineral components such
as micas, glauconite, heavy minerals and components con-
tained in sandstone matrix can be important sources of K, U
and Th radioactivity. Micas (mean 6.8 %) include muscovite
and biotite, the latter usually being chloritized. Arenites of
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Lithostra-
tigraphy
Locality
Sandstone compositional group
Qm
(%)
Qp
(%)
Fp
(%)
Fk
(%)
Lv
(%)
Lm
(%)
Ls
(%)
Li
(%)
Qt
(%)
F
(%)
L
(%)
Go
dul
a
F
o
rm
ati
o
n
PS
Pustevny 3
54.9 15.5
9.3 16.1
0
1.0
1.0
2.1 70.5 25.4
4.1
Horní Rozpité
53.3
25.6 7.5 9.5 0.5 1.0 0.5 2.0
78.9
17.1 4.0
Up
pe
r Mb
Čeladenka
56.3
25.3 6.8 6.3 0
2.6 1.1 1.6
81.6
13.2 5.3
41.8 33.8 12.0 11.1 0
0.4 0
0.9 75.6 23.1 1.3
Magurka 1
54.3 6.0 6.0
10.6 0.7 19.2 1.3 2.0
60.3
16.6
23.2
47.4 19.6 9.3 13.9 0
8.2 1.0 0.5 67.0 23.2 9.8
M
id
d
le
–U
pp
er
Mb
Magurka 2
53.4 14.6 11.7 20.4 0
0
0
0 68.0 32.0 0
63.0 8.2
14.7 9.2 0
1.6 2.2 1.1
71.2
23.9 4.9
Pustevny 2
54.8 17.3 8.7 16.8 0.5 1.0 1.0 0 72.1 25.5 2.4
55.4 15.5 9.3 16.6 0
1.0 1.0 1.0 71.0 25.9 3.1
Malinová
52.6
19.9 6.4 9.0 0.6 10.3 1.3 0 72.4
15.4
12.2
50.0 16.3 13.3 12.0 0
7.2 1.2 0 66.3 25.3 8.4
62.9 10.3 11.9 11.9 0
1.0 1.0 1.0 73.2 23.7 3.1
Šance
49.4 14.0 13.4 18.3 0
3.0 0.6 1.2 63.4 31.7 4.9
Mi
d
d
le
M
em
b
er
Zubří 2
50.3 19.6 14.0 13.4 0.6 1.1 0.6 0.6 69.8 27.4 2.8
Zubří 1
42.2
23.5 8.8 8.8 0 13.7 2.0 1.0
65.7
17.6
16.7
56.5 15.1 10.2 17.2 0
0
0
1.1 71.5 27.4 1.1
Mořkov
56.9 10.1 14.7 15.6 0
0
0.9 1.8 67.0 30.3 2.8
53.2 21.6 5.8 11.7 0
1.2 3.5 2.9 74.9 17.5 7.6
Trojanovice
quarry
51.7 19.1 13.5 10.7 0.6 2.2 0.6 1.7 70.8 24.2 5.1
55.7 16.5 10.3 12.9 0
1.0 1.5 2.1 72.2 23.2 4.6
47.6 22.5 11.5 14.7 0.5 0.5 1.6 1.0 70.2 26.2 3.7
56.6
21.5 7.8 8.3 0
2.0 0.5 3.4
78.0
16.1 5.9
60.8 12.7 8.8 14.9 0
1.1 0.6 1.1 73.5 23.8 2.8
Lo
w
er
M
b
Ondřejník 1
60.2 12.4 11.2 13.7 0.6 0
0.6 1.2 72.7 24.8 2.5
49.5 10.9 17.4 20.7 0
0
1.6 0 60.3 38.0 1.6
51.1 18.6 11.7 16.5 0
1.1 0.5 0.5 69.7 28.2 2.1
63.6 10.3 11.4 10.9 0
2.2 0.5 1.1 73.9 22.3 3.8
Ma
zá
k
Fo
rm
a
tio
n
V
G
B
Ondřejník 2
54.9 14.9 14.4 14.9 0
0.5 0.5 0 69.7 29.2 1.0
Mazák quarry
36.5 29.5 26.9 5.1 0
0.6 0.6 0.6 66.0 32.1 1.9
OS
Čeladná
61.9
24.7 3.1 7.2 0
1.0 0.5 1.5
86.6
10.3 3.1
57.4
31.0 3.7 6.9 0
0 0.5 0.5
88.4
10.6 0.9
Table 4: Recalculated sandstone compositional data. OS – Ostravice sandstone, PS – Pustevny
sandstone, VGB – Variegated Godula Beds, Qm – Monocrystalline quartz, Qp – Polycrys
talline quartz, Fp – Plagioclase feldspars, Fk – Potassium feldspars, Lv – Volcanic lithic clasts,
Lm – Magmatic lithic clasts and their metamorphic equivalents, Ls – Sedimentary lithic clasts
and their metamorphic equivalents, Li – Undetermined lithic clasts, Qt – Total quartz, F – Total
feldspars, L – Total lithic clasts.
the Lower and Middle Godula Members have the highest
concentrations of micas. Mica grains sometimes contain in-
clusions of heavy minerals such as rutile, zircon or pyrite.
Glauconite concentrations are highly variable in the studied
sandstones (0—10 %; mean 3.2 %). They can rapidly fluctu-
ate layer by layer at one locality. Heavy minerals occur in
accessory amounts (0.2—1.9 %; mean 0.8 %) with tourma-
line, rutile, zircon, garnets and apatite being the most abun-
dant. Monazite and epidote are also present but their
abundance in the heavy mineral assemblages is low (less
than 2 %). Xenotime, barite, titanite and pyroxene are even
less abundant (less than 1 %). SEM observation of thin sec-
tions indicate that some of these infrequent heavy minerals
(monazite, xenotime) are relative abundant in the silt and
clay size fractions of the sandstones. The composition of
heavy mineral assemblages changes throughout the Mazák
and Godula Formations. Most significant is the increase of
garnet abundance at the expense of tourmaline, rutile, zircon
and apatite in the Middle and Upper Godula Members. The
sandstone matrix is primarily composed of a mixture of
quartz, plagioclase, chlorite,
sericite, illite and heavy miner-
als. However, the primary ma-
trix is partly or fully replaced
by calcite or quartz cement in
most of the samples.
Chemical composition of the
potential carriers of K, U and Th
(K-feldspars, muscovite, biotite,
glauconite, zircon, apatite, mon-
azite) were studied in selected
sandstone samples using the
scanning electron microscope in
the WDX mode. The results are
shown in Table 5.
The mineral composition of
mudstones was studied using
X-ray powder diffraction. Phyl-
losilicates (micas, clay minerals
with mica-structure, chlorite
and kaolinite) and other detrital
minerals in the clay fraction
(quartz, feldspars and calcite)
were identified in all samples.
Other constituents such as py-
rite, hematite and heavy miner-
als are present but rare. The
clay minerals, quartz, feldspars
and chlorite are the most impor-
tant components of the mud-
stones. Illite and clay minerals
with mica structure are most
abundant in the Lower (mean
47 %) and Middle Godula Mem-
bers and least abundant in the
Mazák Formation (mean 32 %).
In contrast, quartz grains are
most abundant in the Mazák
Formation (mean 43 %) and
least abundant in the Godula Formation (mean values, Lower
Member: 25 %; Middle Member: 30 % and Upper Mem-
ber: 27 %). Contents of feldspars increase from the Mazák
Formation (mean 7 %) towards the Godula Formation (mean
values, Lower Member: 10 %; Middle and Upper Mem-
bers: 12 %). The highest contents of chlorite were found in
the Mazák Formation (mean 10 %) while they are less abun-
dant in the Godula Formation (mean 6 %).
Discussion
Interpretation of depositional environment
A basic interpretation of the depositional setting was
inferred from association of facies at five larger sections
(10—40 m) (see Fig. 4). The record of sedimentary structures,
facies (Table 1) and facies associations suggest that most of
the deposition took place in a sand-rich submarine fan system
in a deep-marine setting (cf. Mutti & Ricci Lucci 1972; Nor-
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mark 1978; Shanmugam & Moiola 1988; Reading & Richards
1994; Stow et al. 1996; Einsele 2000; Shanmugam 2006).
Specific elements of the submarine fan system can be seen
in particular sections. Basal erosive contact of a submarine
channel with underlying pelagic sediments is inferred from fa-
cies stacking patterns in the Mazák Quarry section (Fig. 4).
Channel deposition of the Ostravice sandstone (cf. Eliáš 1970)
is inferred from poor size sorting, predominance of coarse-
grained facies (F1a and F2), frequent amalgamation of beds
and sharp bed contacts (cf. Mutti & Ricci Lucci 1972; Shan-
mugam & Moiola 1988; Reading & Richards 1994; Słomka
1995). Although lenticular or wedge-shaped beds, which are
characteristic for channel sediments, were not detected due to
limited outcrop exposure, they were previously described
from the Ostravice sandstones by Eliáš (1970). Basin plain
sedimentation of the Mazák Formation is documented by thinly
bedded red mudstones alternating with quartz-rich fine-
grained turbidites (Menčík et al. 1983; Lemańska 2005). Sedi-
ments of distributory channels (Trojanovice Quarry section,
Fig. 4) are interpreted on the basis of marked prevalence of
coarse-grained, massive sandstone facies (F2, F3a—b) over
thin bedded fine-grained facies (F4a—b, F6); poor sorting;
amalgamation of beds, sharp bed contacts and abundance of
mudstone rip-up clasts (Mutti & Ricci Lucci 1972; Shan-
mugam & Moiola 1988; Reading & Richards 1994; Bouma
2000). This section corresponds to Type II of the channel sedi-
ments classification of Słomka (1995). Sediments of the
Ondřejník 2 and Šance sections are interpreted as sandstone
lobe deposits, as indicated by irregular vertical CU-trends
(compensation cycles), sheet-like bed geometry and predomi-
nance of coarser-grained sandstone facies. The occurrence of
thick-bedded and amalgamated beds of coarse-to-medium
grained sandstones with Ta-b divisions of Bouma sequence
suggest deposition in proximal part of sandstone lobe near the
mouth of distributory channel for the Šance section. Gener-
ally, thinner beds, presence of finer-grained facies with Tb-Tc
Bouma division and abundant sole marks and trace fossils in
bed bases at Ondřejník 2 section indicate deposition in the
Table 5: Concentrations of K
2
O, UO
2
and ThO
2
(SEM WDX) in the main mineral carriers of
K, U and Th in sandstones of the Godula Formation. The mean abundance of minerals was cal-
culated from point counting of the analysed thin sections. Most important sources of K, U and
Th are indicated in bold letters.
non-channelized part of a sandstone
lobe (Mutti & Ricci Lucci 1972;
Shanmugam & Moiola 1988; Read-
ing & Richards 1994; Słomka 1995;
Bouma 2000). The Čeladenka sec-
tion, characterized by thin- to very
thin bedding, equal proportion of
sandstones and mudstones and pre-
dominance of facies with Tb-c-d-e
Bouma divisions represents sedi-
ments of outer sandstone lobe (Mutti
& Ricci Lucci 1972; Shanmugam &
Moiola 1988; Reading & Richards
1994; Słomka 1995; Bouma 2000;
Mattern 2002).
Sources of K, U and Th signal
The possible sources of
γ-ray sig-
nal in the studied sediments were
identified from the results of modal
and chemical analyses of sandstones and mudstones. The
contribution of K, U and Th to the overall natural radioactivity
(SGR) is relatively well balanced, which is typical for imma-
ture siliciclastic sediments (IAEA 1990). Potassium is mainly
contained in the minerals of sand grain-size such as K-feld-
spars, muscovite, biotite (incl. partly chloritized grains),
which are abundant in the studied samples, and glauconite,
which is only locally abundant (Table 5). Low K
2
O concen-
trations were also detected in albite, which is an abundant
framework grain in sandstones (Table 5), as well as in car-
bonate cement. The most important sources of U and Th are
heavy minerals (cf. Howell & Aitken 1996) in particular
monazite and zircon. Relatively low concentrations of UO
2
and ThO
2
were also detected in apatite grains (Table 5). A
considerable part of the K, U and Th radioactive signal can
also be linked with the presence of lithic clasts (IAEA 1990;
Doveton 1994), in particular pelitic and meta-pelitic, plutonic
and high-grade metamorphic rocks (cf. Šimíček et al. 2012).
In addition, sandstone matrix can contain silt- and clay-sized
radioactive grains such as sericite, K-feldspars, illite, kaolin-
ite, chlorite and monazite, which are abundant in the sand
fractions of the sandstones as well as in the mudstones.
The composition of mudstones (X-ray powder diffraction)
is qualitatively similar to the composition of sandstones
(Fig. 6). Illite and I/S-structure clays are most probably the
main sources of potassium, followed by feldspars and sericite.
The relatively high radioactivity of mudstones is traditionally
attributed to the adsorption of Th and U on the surface of clay
minerals and U on organic matter – an important constituent
in some mudstones (IAEA 1990; Herron & Matteson 1993;
Rider 1999). Part of the Th and U signal can be carried by silt-
and clay-sized heavy minerals in the mudstones. We have not
analysed organic matter, which can be a possible source of U,
but the contents of total organic carbon are typically low in the
sandstones (<1 %) as well as in the mudstones ( < 0.5 % on av-
erage; maximum 1 %) of the Mazák and Godula Formations
(Matýsek & Skupien 2005; Skupien & Smaržová 2009). We
therefore do not regard organic matter as an important source
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of radioactivity in the studied siliciclastics, which is in accor-
dance with our previous results from the Carboniferous turbid-
ites of the Moravo-Silesian Basin (Šimíček et al. 2012, p. 59).
In summary, the overall radioactivity of the Mazák and
Godula Formation is not controlled by a prominent single
mineral carrier but by a mix of different mineral sources of a
very broad grain-size range.
Facies effects of
γγγγγ-ray spectra
The total radioactivity and concentrations of K, U and Th in
sandstones, in general, are lower than in mudstones due to the
compositional contrasts between sand, silt and mud fractions.
This difference, however, changes throughout the stratigraphy
of the Mazák and Godula Formations (Figs. 7, 8). The highest
contrasts were found in the Mazák Formation, in which maxi-
mum concentrations of K, U and Th in sandstones are lower
than minimum values in mudstones (Figs. 4, 7). This sensi-
tivity of the radioactive signal to facies/grain size is consistent
with the primary interpretation of
γ-ray logs as an indicator of
“shaliness” (Doveton 1994; Rider 1999). Much of the compo-
sitional contrast is provided by the “dilution” effect of the
non-radioactive quartz framework grains and calcite replace-
ment cements in the quartzose sandstones. On the other hand,
the higher radioactivity of the mudstones is driven by the con-
tents of clay minerals and other phyllosilicates. The Lower
Godula Member and lower part of the Middle Member also
show relatively high facies sensitivity of the
γ-ray logs. How-
ever, the facies sensitivity is rather reduced in several sections
from more distal submarine fan settings (thin-bedded turbid-
ites) (Ondřejník 2; Fig. 4). Frequent variations of thin
( < 20 cm), lithologically contrasted layers cause homogeniza-
tion of the GRS due to mixing of
γ-ray signals from multiple
layers in the 2
π geometry (cf. Bristow & Williamson 1998;
Svendsen & Hartley 2001).
Starting from the upper part of the Middle Godula Mem-
ber, the contrast between the K, U and Th concentrations in
sandstone- and mudstone + heterolithic facies tend to de-
crease upwards (Figs. 7, 8). The value of GRS signal as indi-
cator of facies/grain size is therefore reduced. This trend is
obviously related to the decreasing contents of quartz grains
in sandstones at the expense of K-, U- and Th-bearing miner-
als including feldspars, micas, glauconite, lithic clasts and
specific components of sandstone matrix (including heavy
minerals at the Middle/Upper Godula Member boundary).
Interpretation of facies trends from the
γ-ray record (Myers
& Bristow 1989) is unreliable in mineralogically immature si-
liciclastic systems (Šimíček et al. 2012). This is caused by the
highly variable modal composition of the same grain-size
fractions in sandstones (quartzo-feldspathic and quartzo-felds-
patholithic arenites) and by the low compositional contrast be-
tween sand-size fraction, sandstone matrix and mudstones.
The increasing rate of detrital influx (decreasing mineral
maturity of sandstones) results in decreasing facies effect on
the
γ-ray spectra. Our results show, that detrital effect gener-
ally increased during deposition of the Mazák and Godula
Formation. Comparing the GRS data from the same litholo-
gies, we can interpret the changes in concentrations of K, U
and Th in terms of provenance changes.
Fig. 7.
Stratigraphic
variation
of
K,
U
and
Th
concentrations,
SGR
and
Th/K
and
Th/U
ratios
in
sandstone
and
mudstone
facies
throughout
the
Mazák
and
Godula
Formations.
For
numbers
of
localities see Fig.
1.
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Sandstone provenance, GRS values and the tectonic evolu-
tion of the source area
The petrological study reveals that the dominant source of
clastic material for the Mazák and Godula Formations was in
plutonic and high-grade metamorphic rocks and, to a lesser
extent, in sedimentary and low-grade metamorphic rocks.
Volcanic material is rare (cf. Unrug 1968; Grzebyk & Lesz-
czyński 2006). The plutonic and high-grade metamorphic
sources are indicated by lithic clasts of granites, gneisses and
granulites; slightly undulose Qm grains; Qp grain composed
of more than 3 sub-grains (sensu Basu 1985); unzoned or
slightly zoned potassium feldspars and high proportions of
tourmaline, rutile, garnet and zircon in the heavy mineral as-
semblages (Blatt 1967; Basu 1985; Helmond 1985; Krainer &
Spoil 1989; Morton 2003; Das 2008; Gallala et al. 2009). The
sedimentary and meta-sedimentary sources are indicated by
lithic clasts of limestones, cherts, mudstones, chlorite schists,
mica-schists and by sparse rounded (re-sedimented) heavy-
mineral grains (cf. Deer et al. 1992). Volcanic rocks including
andesite and rhyolite clasts together with sparse Cr-spinels in
the heavy mineral fraction document moderately active or dis-
tant island arc volcanism (sensu Čopjaková & Sulovský 2003;
Grzebyk & Leszczyński 2006). This complies with the rock
composition of the hypothetical intra-basin Silesian ridge
source (Menčík et al. 1983; Picha et al. 2006). The Silesian
ridge consisted of Proterozoic (Cadomian) granites, Variscan
metamorphic rocks metamorphosed into eclogite and granu-
lite facies and Variscan and post-Variscan low-grade meta-
morphic and sedimentary cover units (Michalik et al. 2004;
Poprawa et al. 2004; Nejbert et al. 2005; Budzyń et al 2008).
The study of mineral and chemical composition of sand-
stones, combined with the GRS record reveals two major
changes in modal composition during the deposition of the
Mazák and Godula Formations. Consequently, we can divide
the entire stratigraphic succession into three segments. The
lower segment corresponds to the Mazák Formation (Turo-
nian—Lower Coniacian) and the rutile-zircon heavy mineral
sub-zone of Roth (1980). The main sources were identified in
quartz-rich plutonic rocks, supplemented by limestone and
chert clasts and rare pelite and meta-pelite rocks. The samples
plot in the cratonic source field of the ternary diagrams of
Dickinson et al. (1983). All this indicates relatively high min-
eral and textural maturity of the sandstones. The cratonic clas-
Fig. 8. Stratigraphic distribution of mean values of SGR, concentrations of K, U and Th and the main components of sandstones throughout
the Mazák and Godula Formations. Qt – Total quartz, F – Feldspars, Ft – Total feldspars, Fk – Potassium feldspars, Fp – Plagioclases,
L – Lithic clasts, Lm – Plutonic and meta-plutonic lithic clasts, Ls – Sedimentary and meta-sedimentary lithic clasts.
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tic sources document the initial phase of the Silesian ridge up-
lift due to the Upper Cretaceous compressional tectonic move-
ments in the Central Carpathians (Menčík et al. 1983). The
sand bodies of the coarse-grained Ostravice sandstone indicate
the first pulses of synorogenic sedimentation in the Western
Carpathians and a transition from passive to active continental
margin regime (Picha et al. 2006). The high contents of non-
radioactive quartz, low contents of less stable framework
K-feldspars, plagioclases, micas and glauconite, the rutile- and
tourmaline dominated heavy mineral assemblages, the low
contents of lithic clasts and replacement of sandstone matrix
by non-radioactive quartz or carbonate cement are responsible
for very low spectral
γ-ray signals in the sandstones of the
Mazák Formation (Fig. 8). Consequently, in terms of the GRS
signal, the Mazák Formation can be clearly distinguished from
the overlying Godula Formation (Fig. 7).
The middle segment corresponds to the Lower Member
and the lower part of the Middle Godula Member (Lower
Coniacian—Lower Campanian). Its upper boundary coincides
with the boundary between zircon and garnet heavy mineral
zones of Roth (1980). As compared with the lower segment,
the mineral and structural maturity of sandstones consider-
ably decreased in the middle segment. The QFL data plot
within the continental transition field in the ternary diagrams
of Dickinson et al. (1983) (Fig. 6). Sandstones of the middle
segment have significantly lower contents of quartz and
higher contents of feldspars (especially K-feldspars), micas
and glauconite. Among the lithic clasts, plutonic rocks still
predominate but clasts of micaschists and gneisses are also
abundant. The replacement of sandstone matrix by cement is
not as common as in the lower segment. Rutile and tourma-
line still predominate in the heavy mineral assemblages but
their proportion slightly decreases at the expanse of zircon,
monazite and locally garnets. The relative decrease of tour-
maline, which indicate lithium-poor granites (sensu Grzebyk
& Leszczyński 2006) and increase of zircons, which is also
typical for granitoid rocks (Speer 1980) is probably related
to a complex composition of the Cadomian crystalline base-
ment of the Silesian ridge. This compositional complexity
may parallel the Silesian ridge to the Brunovistulian terrane
constituting the southeastern margin of the Bohemian Massif
(Kalvoda et al. 2008). The change in modal composition of
sandstones of the middle segment correlates with the onset
of the Mediterranean (Subhercynian) orogenic phase in the
Alpine—Carpathian system spanning the Coniacian to Maas-
trichtian times (Książkiewicz 1977; Menčík et al. 1983).
Rapid uplift and erosion of the Silesian ridge combined with
high topographic gradient, short transport and rapid deposi-
tion during the tectonic compression can be considered as
causes of the lower sandstone maturity in the middle seg-
ment and the associated changes in the
γ-ray spectra (Fig. 8).
The upper segment corresponds to the upper part of the
Middle Godula Member and the Upper Godula Member (Up-
per Campanian) and the garnet heavy mineral zone of Roth
(1980). The ternary diagrams of Dickinson et al. (1983) indi-
cate increasing supply of material from recycled orogen
(Fig. 6). This is consistent with the continuing decrease of
mineral and textural maturity of sediments (the highest abun-
dance of quartzo-feldspathic and quartzo-feldspatholithic
arenites). This composition is characteristic for acid to inter-
mediate magmatic sources and their high-grade metamorphic
country rock (Zuffa 1985), which is the supposed composition
of the Cadomian and Variscan crystalline basement of the
Silesian ridge (Michalik et al. 2004; Poprawa et al. 2004;
Nejbert et al. 2005; Budzyń et al 2008). An increased supply
of such material was observed at the base of the upper seg-
ment. In contrast to the middle segment, high-grade metamor-
phic rocks such as gneisses and granulites predominate over
magmatic rocks (cf. Unrug 1968) in the upper segment. This
is consistent with the decreasing proportions of rutile and tour-
maline at the expanse of garnets in the heavy mineral assem-
blages (Roth 1980). Composition of garnets changes from
almandine-dominated assemblages in the upper part of the
Middle Member to pyrope-dominated ones in the Upper
Member (sensu Grzebyk & Leszczyński 2006). Clasts of
pelites and meta-pelites are less abundant than in the middle
segment, and limestones and silicites disappear altogether.
The base of the upper segment is characterized by significant
increase of the concentrations of K, U and Th and SGR values.
The upper parts of the Middle Godula Member show the high-
est values of SGR and K concentrations. Consistently with the
sandstone composition data, the
γ-ray contrast between mud-
stones and sandstones is considerable reduced in the upper
segment, indicating further reduction of mineral maturity and
accelerated transport and deposition of eroded material.
Conclusions
The Mazák and Godula Formations of the Silesian Unit
have moderate levels of natural radioactivity which is con-
trolled by a roughly balanced contribution from K, U and
Th. K-feldspars, micas, albite, glauconite and clay minerals
(mainly illite and I/S clays) were identified as major sources
of potassium; heavy minerals, in particular monazite, zircon
and apatite, and possibly clay minerals as sources of U and
Th (the latter due to adsorption of U and Th). Additional
cryptic radioactive sources are probably associated with
mudstones, lithic clasts of meta-pelites in sandstones and
fine-grained matrix in sandstones. This multi-component na-
ture of the radioactive signal provides an explanation for the
lack of statistical correlation between concentrations of the
main mineral constituents and concentrations of K, U and Th.
The radioactive signal is sensitive to facies/grain size. Mud-
stones and heterolithic deep-water facies are more radio-
active than gravity-flow sandstones and conglomerates from
the same stratigraphic levels. However, the facies contrast of
the
γ-ray signal strongly varies throughout the stratigraphic
column. In the Mazák Formation at the base of the succes-
sion, the contrast is highest but it decreases in two steps to-
wards the younger strata, first at the base of the Lower Godula
Member and second at the base of the Upper Godula Member.
The reduced facies contrast is caused by increasing radioac-
tivity of sandstones due to their lower mineral maturity and
lower compositional contrast between sand-, silt- and clay-
size fractions at the top of the succession. With these facies ef-
fects taken into account, the spectral
γ-ray signal can be used
as an indicator of provenance changes.
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The siliciclastics of the Mazák and Godula Formations are
derived mainly from plutonic and high-grade metamorphic
sources and to a lower extent from sedimentary and low-grade
metamorphic rocks of the hypothetical intra-basin Silesian
ridge. Based on modal analyses, mineral chemistry and the
spectral
γ-ray record, the whole succession can be subdivided
into three stratigraphic segments with contrasting provenance.
The lower segment (Mazák Formation) is predominantly sup-
plied from a cratonic source (mainly quartz-rich plutonic
rocks, limestone and chert clasts). The high contents of non-
radioactive quartz and low contents of chemically unstable
radioactive minerals are responsible for the very low radioac-
tivity of the Mazák Formation and high
γ-ray contrast between
sandstone and mudstone facies. Sandstones of the Mazák For-
mation can be easily distinguished from sandstones of the
Godula Formation based on their very low radioactivity. The
middle segment (Lower and lower parts of the Middle Godula
Member) is supplied from transitional continental sources,
mainly plutonic rocks but also micaschists and gneisses. The
middle segment correlates with the onset of the Mediterra-
nean (Subhercynian) orogenic phase in the Alpine—Carpathian
system. Intensive uplift and erosion in the source area caused
significantly lower mineral maturity of the sandstones as com-
pared with the lower segment. Increased influx of K-feld-
spars and micas and lower textural maturity of the sands are
responsible for the higher concentrations of K, U and Th in
the
γ-ray spectra. The upper segment (upper parts of the Mid-
dle Member and the Upper Godula Member) is predominantly
supplied from recycled orogen, which is consistent with the
further decrease of mineral and textural maturity of the sand-
stones. Its sediments are derived from high-grade metamor-
phics such as gneisses and granulites predominating over
magmatic rocks, which is consistent with the change from
zircon-dominated to garnet-dominated heavy mineral zones
of Roth (1980). The base of the upper segment is associated
with a prominent increase in concentrations of U and Th and
values of SGR.
The stratigraphic variation in K, U and Th concentrations
and total radioactivity are consistent with the changes of main
detrital modes in sandstones of the Mazák and Godula Forma-
tions. They jointly indicate a progressive uplift, increasing
topographic gradient and enhanced erosion of crystalline
basement of the Silesian ridge. Outcrop
γ-ray spectrometry
proves to be a useful tool in studies of siliciclastic provenance
in geotectonic settings associated with plate convergence.
Acknowledgments: This research was funded by the Project
POST-UP II (Nr. CZ.1.07/2.3.00/30.0041). We thank re-
viewers Prof. Jan Golonka (Katedra Geologii Ogólnej i Geo-
turystyki AGH, Kraków, Poland) and doc. Ing. Petr Skupien
(Faculty of Mining and Geology VŠB-TUO, Ostrava, Czech
Republic) for their helpful comments.
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