GeolCarp_Vol63_No4_335

www.geologicacarpathica.sk

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, AUGUST 2012, 63, 4, 335—342 doi: 10.2478/v10096-012-0026-2

Burial history, thermal history and hydrocarbon generation

modelling of the Jurassic source rocks in the basement of the

Polish Carpathian Foredeep and Outer Carpathians

(SE Poland)

PAWEŁ KOSAKOWSKI and MAGDALENA WRÓBEL

AGH University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Geology, Geophysics and Environmental Protection, Al. Mickiewicza 30,

30-059 Kraków, Poland; kosak@agh.edu.pl; wrobelm@agh.edu.pl

(Manuscript received November 22, 2011; accepted in revised form March 13, 2012)

Abstract: Burial history, thermal maturity, and timing of hydrocarbon generation were modelled for the Jurassic source
rocks in the basement of the Carpathian Foredeep and marginal part of the Outer Carpathians. The area of investigation
was bounded to the west by Kraków, to the east by Rzeszów. The modelling was carried out in profiles of wells:
Będzienica 2, Dębica 10K, Góra Ropczycka 1K, Goleszów 5, Nawsie 1, Pławowice E1 and Pilzno 40. The organic matter,
containing gas-prone Type III kerogen with an admixture of Type II kerogen, is immature or at most, early mature to
0.7 % in the vitrinite reflectance scale. The highest thermal maturity is recorded in the south-eastern part of the study
area, where the Jurassic strata are buried deeper. The thermal modelling showed that the obtained organic matter matu-
rity in the initial phase of the “oil window” is connected with the stage of the Carpathian overthrusting. The numerical
modelling indicated that the onset of hydrocarbon generation from the Middle Jurassic source rocks was also connected
with the Carpathian thrust belt. The peak of hydrocarbon generation took place in the orogenic stage of the overthrusting.
The amount of generated hydrocarbons is generally small, which is a consequence of the low maturity and low transfor-
mation degree of kerogen. The generated hydrocarbons were not expelled from their source rock. An analysis of matu-
rity distribution and transformation degree of the Jurassic organic matter shows that the best conditions for hydrocarbon
generation occurred most probably in areas deeply buried under the Outer Carpathians. It is most probable that the
“generation kitchen” should be searched for there.

Key words: Jurassic, Outer Carpathians, Carpathian Foredeep, SE Poland, 1-D modelling, source rocks, generation.

Introduction

The study area located between Kraków and Rzeszów (Fig. 1)
has  been  subjected  to  intensive  drilling  exploration  since  the
1950s. As a result, many natural gas deposits have been dis-
covered  within  the  Miocene  cover  (Kotarba  &  Peryt  2011).
The gases accumulated there are microbial, that is formed be-
fore  the  thermogenic  processes  (Kotarba  2011).  Numerous
small  commercial  and  uncommercial  oil  and  gas  accumula-
tions  have  also  been  discovered  within  the  Upper  Jurassic—
Lower  Cretaceous  carbonate  complex  and  Upper  Cretaceous
carbonate and clastic complexes (Karnkowski 1993; Myśliwiec
et al. 2006). The Upper Jurassic (—Lower Cretaceous) carbon-
ates were found to contain an oil accumulation in the Partynia-
Podborze  field,  gas  accumulations  in  the  Wojsław,  Łączki
Brzeskie, and Mędrzechów fields, oil and gas accumulation in
the Korzeniów-Męciszów, and gas-condensate accumulations
in  the  Góra  Ropczycka  and  Tarnów  fields  (Myśliwiec  et  al.
2006;  Kotarba  et  al.  2011).  In  both  the  Upper  Jurassic  and
Upper Cretaceous strata the hydrocarbon accumulations were
found  in  the  Dąbrowa  Tarnowska  and  Grobla-Pławowice
fields (oils and gas), Łapanów (gas), Łąkta (gas and conden-
sate), Smęgorzów (gas), and Żukowice fields (gas). The Upper
Cretaceous  sandstones  were  found  to  contain  gas  accumula-
tions in the Brzezowiec, Jastrząbka Stara, Rajsko, Rylowa, and

Swarzów fields (Karnkowski 1993; Myśliwiec et al. 2006).
Gases occurring in the Paleozoic-Mesozoic basement of the
Polish Carpathian Foredeep are both microbial and thermo-
genic (Kotarba 2012).

Due to a significant incompleteness of the sedimentation

profile, caused mainly by erosional processes, it is important
to define the source of the hydrocarbon mass accumulated
later in reservoir rocks and to reconstruct the course of the
processes.

In the current work, the generation potential of the Jurassic

strata  of  the  basement  of  the  Carpathian  Foredeep  and  the
marginal part of the Outer Carpathians was evaluated in the
area  between  Kraków  and  Rzeszów,  with  the  use  of  1-D
modelling  methods.  The  analysis  was  carried  out  in  the
Będzienica 2, Dębica 10K, Góra Ropczycka 1K, Goleszów 5,
Nawsie 1, Pławowice E1 and Pilzno 40 wells (Fig. 1).

Outline of geology

The study area comprises the Mesozoic cover within the

range of the basement of the Carpathian Foredeep and the
marginal part of the Outer Carpathians between Kraków and
Rzeszów (Fig. 1). Its western boundary reaches the Kraków-
Lubliniec Fold Zone and corresponds to the boundary of the

336

KOSAKOWSKI and WRÓBEL

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2012, 63, 4, 335—342

Paleozoic  structural  unit  called  the  Małopolska  Block.  Its
eastern boundary is the Lower San Horst Structure (Fig. 1).
The  basement  of  the  Carpathian  Foredeep  and  the  Outer
Carpathians is composed of the Lower Paleozoic strata form-
ing  the  Caledonian  structural  stage,  the  Upper  Paleozoic
strata  forming  the  Variscan  stage,  and  the  Permian  and
Mesozoic  strata  forming  the  Alpine  structural  stage.  A  de-
scription of the Caledonian and Variscan stages in the study
area  can  be  found  in  Buła  &  Habryn  (2008,  2011)  and
Kosakowski & Wróbel (2011), and the Alpine stage adopted for
the purposes of the modelling of hydrocarbon generation and
expulsion  processes  is  given  as  in  Oszczypko  et  al.  (2006),
Świdrowska et al. (2008) and Kosakowski et al. (2011).

The Mesozoic strata form three complexes: the Permian—

Triassic,  Middle  Jurassic—Lower  Cretaceous  and  Upper
Cretaceous.  Their  ranges  and  the  interrelationships  among
them were formed by multi-stage Alpine processes of uplift-
ing  of  the  area  and  its  subsequent  erosion  (Moryc  2006;
Krajewski et al. 2011). Those movements caused reductions

in the sedimentation profile of the Mesozoic cover (Gutowski
et al. 2007; Matyja 2009; Krajewski et al. 2011; Kosakowski
& Wróbel 2011; Kosakowski et al. 2011) and a limitation of
the  range  of  occurrence  of  particular  complexes,  especially
the Permian-Triassic complex (Jawor & Baran 2004). That is
a result of erosion that started in the Late Triassic. The next
structural  complex  starts  with  the  Middle  Jurassic  forma-
tions. The complex has the widest extent, and it is formed by
the  Middle  Jurassic,  Upper  Jurassic  as  well  as  the  Lower
Cretaceous  formations.  The  rocks  above,  belong  to  Upper
Cretaceous formations with erosional unconformity; the gap
is  related  to  the  regional  deformation  of  the  Austrian  phase
in the Aptian and Albian time.

The sandy Cenomanian strata begin the Upper Cretaceous

section. The remaining part of the profile is composed of car-
bonate formations. In the Late Cretaceous—Early Paleogene,
as a result of the Laramian phase, the study area was uplifted
and underwent intensive erosion (Jawor & Baran 2004). The
erosion lasted throughout the Paleogene time and resulted in

Fig. 1. Extent of the lowermost Mesozoic strata in the study area with location of 1-D modelled wells. Rus. – Russia, Lith. – Lithuania,
MSFZ – Moravian-Silesian Fault Zone, HF – Hana Fault, KLFZ – Kraków-Lubliniec Fault Zone, HCF – Holy Cross Fault, RRF – Rava
Ruska Fault, TTZ – Teisseyre-Tornquist Zone, ŁR – Łysogóry Region, KR – Kielce Region.

337

THERMAL HYDROCARBON MODELLING OF THE JURASSIC OUTER CARPATHIAN SOURCE ROCKS (POLAND)

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2012, 63, 4, 335—342

the  removal  of  the  Upper  Cretaceous  strata  from  a
significant part of the study area. The Laramian ero-
sion  also  affected  the  formations  of  the  Upper
Jurassic—Lower Cretaceous complex. The results in-
cluded  significant  differences  in  thickness  between
the  western  part,  where  the  thickness  of  that  com-
plex  reaches  about  300 m,  and  the  eastern  part,
where its thickness is even 1300 m (Gutowski et al.
2007;  Matyja  2009).  The  thickness  of  the  terrige-
nous complex of Miocene age varies  and  increases
from  the  margin  of  the  Carpathian  Foredeep,  so
that, for example, it amounts to over 1000 m in the
region of Tarnów, whereas in the region of Rzeszów
it  is  over  2500 m  (Jawor  &  Baran  2004).  From  the
south, the flysch formations of the Outer Carpathians
were overthrusted onto the autochthonous Miocene
strata. Their thickness also increases from the mar-
gin of overthrusting towards the south. In the study
area, the thickness of the flysch strata ranges from a
few hundred meters to over 3800 meters (the area of
Nosówka).

Modelling procedure

1-D modelling of selected wells was performed

using  BasinMod™  software  (BMRM  1-D  2006).
The modelling approach adopted in the software re-
quires  input  data  which  describe  the  present-day
geological  situation  as  a  result  of  past  events.  On
this  basis,  the  geological  history  is  simulated  from
the  oldest  event  to  the  most  recent  one  (Buła  &
Habryn  2008,  2011).  Rock  properties  –  density,
porosity, permeability and thermal conductivity are
modelled along with the thermal history. BasinMod
software  provides  an  extended  database  of  various
lithological  types  defined  by  physical  properties
mentioned  above  (BMRM  1-D  2006;  Kosakowski
et al. 2012a). The details on principles of the model-
ling  technique  are  given  in  Welte  et  al.  (1997).
Thermal  evolution  is  simulated  on  the  basis  of
boundary assignments applied to certain time steps.
The  assigned  parameters  are  heat  flow  densities  in
mW/m

and surface temperatures in °C. Heat flow

and  surface  temperatures  assignment  for  the  past
stages of basin history can only be estimated based
on the general tectonic setting and evolution of the
investigated  region  (Besse  &  Courtillot  1991;  Van
der  Voo  1993;  Yalcin  et  al.  1997;  Allen  &  Allen
2005).  To  determine  the  magnitude  of  burial  and
erosion Rock-Eval T

max

temperature and reflectance

of vitrinite (R

) data were used (Table 1). For burial

history  reconstruction  was  also  used:  thickness  of
individual stratigraphic units, numerical ages defin-
ing time interval between the upper and lower limit
of  each  stratigraphic  unit,  and  petrophysical  para-
meters  for  the  individual  units  (compaction  coeffi-
cient,  initial  porosity,  thermal  conductivity,  heat
capacity).  Estimation  of  eroded  thicknesses  has  to

Table 1:

Vitrinite

reflectance

and

maceral

composition

the

Mesozoic

rganic

matter

the

selected

wells

(Kraków-Rzeszów

area).

–

organic

matter

(sum

of macerals);

–

vitrinite reflectance;

Oredep

– redeposited organic matter;

Meas.

– number

measurements;

n.m.

–

not

measured;

n.d.

–

data;

tr.

–

races.

338

KOSAKOWSKI and WRÓBEL

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2012, 63, 4, 335—342

be  accompanied  by  testing  various  paleoheat  flow  models.
The thermal maturity of organic matter was calculated by the
EASY  %Ro  method  (Sweeney  &  Burnham  1990).  Genera-
tion  and  expulsion  of  hydrocarbons  were  calculated  by  the
LLNL  model  (Ungerer  et  al.  1988;  Forbes  et  al.  1991;
BMRM 1-D 2006).

Modelling of maturation and generation history –

results and discussion

The 1-D maturity modelling as well as thermal and burial

history reconstruction were conducted for 7 wells: Będzieni-
ca 2, Dębica 10K, Góra Ropczycka 1K, Goleszów 5, Nawsie 1,
Pławowice E1  and  Pilzno 40  (Fig. 1).  The  analysed  Middle
and  Upper  Jurassic  strata  together  with  Lower  Cretaceous
strata  (Berriasian  and  Valanginian),  form  one  complex  of
carbonate sediments separated from the under- and overlying

ones  by  discordances.  This  complex  is  represented  by
Oxfordian  marls  and  marly  limestones  overlain  by  a  com-
plex of bedded and massive limestones, Kimmeridgian pelitic
marly  limestones  and  marls  and  Tithonian  massive  carbon-
ates  developed  in  coral-sponge-microbial  facies  (Krajewski
et al. 2011). In the study area the Lower Cretaceous deposi-
tional sequence can be divided into two main facies: Berriasian
peloidal-microbial-cyanobacterial  facies  and  Valanginian
ooidal-bioclastic facies (Zdanowski et al. 2001; Gutowski et
al. 2007; Urbaniec et al. 2010).

The model of the recent thermal regime was calibrated with

data  obtained  from  maps  of  temperatures  at  the  given  depth
horizons (Majorowicz & Plewa 1979; Majorowicz et al. 1984;
Karwasiecka & Bruszewska 1997; Kotarba et al. 2004). More-
over, the analysis also takes into account the temperature mea-
surements  from  adjacent  areas,  namely  the  Upper  Silesian
Block  and  Lublin  Trough.  In  both  areas,  the  distributions  of
the thermal field and their reconstruction indicate much lower

Fig. 2. Burial history curves of the (A) Goleszów 5, (B) Pławowice 1, (C) Dębica 10K, (D) Góra Ropczycka 1 and (E) Pilzno 40 wells and
(F) Będzienica 2 wells. J

– Middle Jurassic, J

– Late Jurassic, Cr

– Late Cretaceous, M – Miocene, Outer Carp. – Outer Car-

pathians, Q – Quaternary.

339

THERMAL HYDROCARBON MODELLING OF THE JURASSIC OUTER CARPATHIAN SOURCE ROCKS (POLAND)

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2012, 63, 4, 335—342

heat flow values and relative stability of paleothermal condi-
tions in the Mesozoic stage of basin development (Belka
1993; Botor et al. 2002; Kotarba et al. 2004).

The calculated values of recent heat flow across the study

area ranged between ca. 50 mW/m

in the eastern part and

ca. 60 mW/m

in its western and central parts.

The maturity modelling was calibrated with thermal maturi-

ty measurements, Rock-Eval T

max

temperature (Kosakowski

et al. 2012b) and vitrinite reflectance R

(Table 1). A signifi-

cant  incompleteness  in  the  stratigraphic  section  in  the  study
area  makes  it  impossible  to  create  one  unique  thermal—ero-
sional model. It is worth stressing, that in each of the analysed
models  there  is  the  possibility  to  use  the  alternative  model
with  an  other  scheme  of  the  thermal  and  erosion  evolution,
which in consequence gives a similar recent thermal maturi-
ty of organic matter. In view of the above-mentioned points,

Fig. 3. Maturity evolution curves for the Jurassic source rocks in profiles of analysed wells.

Fig. 4. The presumably extent of the “oil window” in the Jurassic and Cretaceous strata in
the Kraków-Rzeszów area.

the selection of a model for analysing
hydrocarbon  generation  and  expul-
sion  processes  is,  to  a  large  extent,
subjective  and  gives  an  opportunity
for  a  different  interpretation  of  the
course of petroleum processes in the
study area.

Considerations were based on the

model  of  thermal  changes  presented
by  Narkiewicz  et  al.  (2010),  who
suggested  constant  heat  flow  during
the Permian, Mesozoic and Cenozoic
times.

The pre-Permian stage of basin de-

velopment, presented by Kosakowski
& Wróbel (2011), was ignored in the
reconstruction,  as  one  not  having  a
significant  impact  on  the  develop-
ment  of  organic  matter  maturity  in
the Jurassic strata.

The model of constant heat flow

over time equal to that of recent times
is  sufficient  to  explain  the  available
thermal maturity measurements in the
Jurassic  strata,  because  in  the  Meso-
zoic  the  thermal  history  of  the  study
area is relatively stable.

The key role in the evolution of or-

ganic  matter  maturity  was  played  by
the  deposition  of  thicker  Upper  Juras-
sic  strata,  and,  above  all,  by  the  over-
thrust  of  flysch  deposits  of  the  Outer
Carpathians. The deposition of the Ju-
rassic strata placed the layers of source
rocks at the depth with the temperature
range  of  60—80 °C,  which  represents
the  beginning  of  the  early  mature
phase in the “oil window” (Figs. 2, 3).
Only in the wells located farthest north
of  the  Outer  Carpathian  boundary,
namely  in  the  Pławowice E1  and
Goleszów 5  wells,  the  temperatures
were  much  lower  and  did  not  exceed

30—40 °C (Fig. 2A,B). The deposition of the Cretaceous strata
did not cause a significant increase in temperature, to a maxi-
mum of 50 °C. The post-Cretaceous uplift and erosion of the
study area stopped the increase in temperature, and consequent-
ly, the increase in organic matter maturity (Fig. 3). The deposi-
tion of the Miocene strata also did not cause big changes in the
Jurassic organic matter maturity. This is the result of both the
small thickness of Miocene rocks and low heat flow in the sedi-
mentary basin. Only the Outer Carpathian Overthrust placed the
layer of source rocks in the temperature range which determine
entering the initial phase of the “oil window” (0.5—0.7 %R

)

(Fig. 3). The maximal values of maturity reached by organic
matter in the Jurassic strata range from 0.6—0.65 %R

in the re-

gion of Bochnia-Tarnów-Dębica (Fig. 2C) to about 0.8 %R

the

south-west of Dębica, under the Carpathian Overthrust

(Fig. 2F). The thermal modelling has proven that the extent of

340

KOSAKOWSKI and WRÓBEL

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2012, 63, 4, 335—342

maturity  of  the  organic  matter  within
the  “oil  window”  is  not  exactly  the
same  as  the  extent  of  the  Carpathian
Overthrust;  for  example  in  the  Dębica
area,  the  organic-matter  maturity  was
also influenced by the Miocene deposi-
tion  (Fig. 4).  Nevertheless,  it  can  be
stated, in general, that attainment of ma-
turity  in  the  phase  of  the  “oil  window”
is related to the overthrust of the Outer
Carpathians (Fig. 2C,D).

In the Mesozoic profile in the south-

eastern  part  of  Poland  only  the  Middle
Jurassic  strata  show  rock  complexes
that  meet  the  quantitative  criteria  of
source rocks (Kosakowski et al. 2012b).
The  geochemical  analysis  performed  in
those  strata  revealed  that  the  Triassic,
Upper  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  strata
present generally very low TOC and hy-
drocarbon  (S

+ S

) contents, and low

thermal maturity of organic matter addi-
tionally  reduced  their  source  rock  po-
tential.  The  Middle  Jurassic  source
rocks  show  much  higher  TOC  and  hy-
drocarbon  contents  up  to  17.0 wt. %
and  53.4 mg  HC/g  rock,  respectively
(Kosakowski  et  al.  2012b).  This  poten-
tial is variable, but the maximum values
indicate  the  presence  of  good  and  very
good  source  rocks.  Organic  matter  in
the  Middle  Jurassic  strata  is  of  mixed
type,  dominated  by  gas-prone  Type III
kerogen.  The  organic  matter  is  imma-
ture, or mature in the early phase of the
“oil  window”.  The  maturity  of  kerogen
increases  towards  to  Outer  Carpathians
(Kosakowski et al. 2012b).

This brief geochemical study of the

Mesozoic profile showed that only the
Middle Jurassic strata fulfil the criteria
for source rocks and the kinetic model-
ling were carried out only for this strata.

Modelling of hydrocarbon generation

from  the  Middle  Jurassic  source  rocks
revealed  that  they  only  locally  reached
the generation stage. In the predominant
part of the study area the transformation
degree  of  organic  matter  is  low,  below
10 % (Fig. 5). It was only in the eastern
part of the study area, where the source
rock  formations  are  deeply  submerged
under  the  Carpathian  Overthrust  and
reached  the  highest  maturity,  that  the
transformation  degree  made  it  possible
to  initiate  the  hydrocarbon  generation
process.

In the Nawsie 1 well, the Middle

Jurassic source rocks reached the early

Fig. 5. Transformation ratio of kerogen in the Jurassic source rocks in the profiles of
analysed wells.

Fig. 6. A – Burial history curves for Jurassic source rocks with generation stages and
B – total amount of hydrocarbons generated from the Jurassic source rocks in Nawsie 1
well. For the abbreviations see Fig. 2.

341

THERMAL HYDROCARBON MODELLING OF THE JURASSIC OUTER CARPATHIAN SOURCE ROCKS (POLAND)

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2012, 63, 4, 335—342

phase (10—25 % of generation potential) during the orogenic
phase of the Carpathian Overthrust, at a burial depth below
2300 m and at a temperature above 90 °C (Figs. 5, 6A). In that
well the source rocks also reached the main phase (25—65 %
of generation potential). This phase was reached at the end of
the Carpathian thrust belt, with the maximum of 5000 m and
the maximum temperature of 120 °C (Fig.6A).

In the remaining wells the initiation of the hydrocarbon

generation processes was not obtained, due to maturity being
below the threshold of 0.5 %R

The differences in the degree of transformation of kerogen

observed in the kinetic modelling also had an impact on the
generated hydrocarbon masses. Because the generation pro-
cess developed only in the Nawsie 1 well, the amount of the
obtained  hydrocarbon  mass  was  about  220 mg/g  TOC
(Fig. 6B). In the resulting hydrocarbon mass the liquid phase
is dominant. In the remaining wells, the amount of the hydro-
carbon  mass  is  minimal,  usually  below  10 mg  HC/g  TOC.
The  expulsion  phase  is  observed  only  in  the  Nawsie 1  well
(Fig. 6B).

Conclusions

In the Mesozoic profile of the south-eastern part of Poland

only the Middle Jurassic strata fulfill the quantitative criteria
for source rocks. The hydrocarbon potential of the Middle
Jurassic strata is variable, but the maximum values indicate
the presence of good and very good source rocks.

The burial and thermal history and generation modelling

with a determination of the amount of generated of hydrocar-
bons revealed that source rocks in the Middle Jurassic strata
of  the  basement  of  the  Carpathian  Foredeep  were  effective
only in a part of the study area. The analysis of the distribu-
tion of organic matter maturity and its evolution showed that
only in the eastern part of this area favourable conditions oc-
curred  for  mass  generation  of  hydrocarbons.  In  this  part  of
the  study  area  the  source  rocks  reached  the  generation  pro-
cess  in  the  early  and  the  main  phase  of  the  “oil  window”.
The initial phase of generation was generally reached at the
stage of the Outer Carpathian overthrusting on the foreland.
Only in the Nawsie 1 well the source rock reached the initial
phase of the “oil window” during the deposition of the Upper
Cretaceous  strata.  The  main  phase  of  the  “oil  window”  was
reached  at  the  orogenic  stage  of  the  Carpathian  Overthrust.
The maximum transformation degree was 60 %. The amount
of  hydrocarbons  generated  from  source  rocks  was  propor-
tional  to  the  transformation  of  the  organic  matter  and  it
reached 220 mg HC/g TOC.

The obtained modelling results clearly indicate that the

Middle Jurassic strata, with the heat flow constant over time
and equal to that found in recent times, can reach the transfor-
mation of organic matter necessary for the initiation of the
hydrocarbon generation process only at depths below 5000 m.

Acknowledgments: The research was undertaken as research
Project  No. UKRAINE/193/2006  of  the  Ministry  of  Science
and  Higher  Education  carried  out  at  the  AGH  University  of
Science  and  Technology  in  Kraków  and  Polish  Geological

Institute – National Research Institute in Warsaw. The scien-
tific  work  was  financed  from  the  scientific  fund  in  the  years
2007—2010.  The  authors  thank  Izabella  Grotek  from  Polish
Geological Institute – National Research Institute in Warsaw
for measurements of vitrinite reflectance and maceral compo-
sition.  The  authors  want  to  express  their  sincere  thanks  to
Tadeusz  Peryt  (Polish  Geological  Institute  –  National
Research  Institute),  Paweł  Karnkowski  (University  of  War-
saw) and to the anonymous reviewer for their valuable com-
ments, which helped to prepare the final text.

References

Allen P.A. & Allen J.R. 2005: Basin analysis: principles and appli-

cations. 2nd ed. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, 1—549.

Belka Z. 1993: Thermal and burial history of the Cracow—Silesia re-

gion (southern Poland) assessed by conodont CAI analysis.
Tectonophysics 227, 4, 161—190.

Besse J. & Courtillot V. 1991: Revised and synthetic apparent polar

wander paths of the African, Euroasian, North American and
India Plates, and true polar wander since 200 Ma. J. Geophys.
Res. 96, 4029—4050.

BMRM 1-D 2006: BasinMod™ 1-D Reference Manual. Platte River

Association, Boulder, Colorado.

Botor D., Kotarba M. & Kosakowski P. 2002: Petroleum generation

in the Carboniferous strata of the Lublin Trough (Poland): an
integrated geochemical and numerical modelling approach.
Org. Geochem. 33, 4, 461—476.

Buła Z. & Habryn R. (Eds.) 2008: Geological-structural atlas of the

Palaeozoic basement of the Outer Carpathians and Carpathian
Foredeep. Wydaw. Państw. Inst. Geol., Warszawa, 1—75 (in
Polish and English summary).

Buła Z. & Habryn R. 2011: Precambrian and Palaeozoic basement

of the Carpathian Foredeep and the adjacent Outer Carpathians
(SE Poland and western Ukraine). Ann. Soc. Geol. Pol. 81, 3,
221—239.

Forbes P.L., Ungerer P., Kuhfuss A.B., Riis F. & Eggen S. 1991:

Compositional  modelling  of  petroleum  generation  and  expul-
sion.  Trial  application  to  as  local  mass  balance  in  the  Smor-
bukk  Sor  field,  Haltenbanken  area,  Norway.  Amer.  Assoc.
Petrol. Geol. Bull. 75, 5, 873—893.

Gutowski J., Urbaniec A., Złonkiewicz Z., Bobrek L., Świetlik B. &

Gliniak P. 2007: Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous of the
Middle Polish Carpathian Foreland. Biul. Państw. Inst. Geol.
426, 1—26 (in Polish, English summary).

Jawor E. & Baran U. 2004: Geological setting and characteristics of

Carboniferous  strata  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Małopolska
block. In: Kotarba M.J. (Ed.): Hydrocarbon generation poten-
tial  of  Carboniferous  rocks  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Upper
Silesian  and  Małopolska  blocks.  TBPŚ  “Geosfera”,  Kraków,
25—48 (in Polish, English summary).

Karwasiecka M. & Bruszewska B. 1997: Heat flow in Poland. Cen-

tralne Archiwum Geologiczne, Państw. Inst. Geol., Warszawa
(in Polish).

Kosakowski P. & Wróbel M. 2011: Burial and thermal history and

hydrocarbon generation modelling of the Lower Palaeozoic
source rocks in the Kraków—Rzeszów area (SE Poland). Ann.
Soc. Geol. Pol. 81, 3, 459—471.

Kosakowski P., Wróbel M. & Koltun Y.V. 2011: 1-D modelling of

the hydrocarbon generation history of the Jurassic source rocks
in the Tarnogród—Stryi area (SE Poland—western Ukraine). Ann.
Soc. Geol. Pol. 81, 3, 473—485.

Kosakowski P., Leśniak G. & Krawiec J. 2012a: Reservoir proper-

342

KOSAKOWSKI and WRÓBEL

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2012, 63, 4, 335—342

ties of the Palaeozoic—Mesozoic sedimentary cover in the
Kraków—Lubaczów area (SE Poland). Ann. Soc. Geol. Pol. 82,
1, 51—64.

Kosakowski P., Więcław D., Kotarba M.J. & Kowalski A. 2012b:

Hydrocarbon potential of the Mesozoic strata between Kraków
and Rzeszów (SE Poland). Geol. Quart. 56, 1, 139—152.

Kotarba M.J. 2011: Origin of natural gases in the autochthonous

Miocene strata of the Polish Carpathian Foredeep. Ann. Soc.
Geol. Pol. 81, 3, 409—424.

Kotarba M.J. 2012: Origin of natural gases in the Paleozoic-Meso-

zoic basement of the Polish Carpathian Foredeep. Geol. Car-
pathica 63, 4, 307—318.

Kotarba M.J. & Peryt T.M. 2011: Geology and petroleum geochem-

istry of Miocene strata in the Polish and Ukrainian Carpathian
Foredeep and its Palaeozoic—Mesozoic basement. Ann. Soc.
Geol. Pol. 81, 3, 211—220.

Kotarba M.J., Kosakowski P. & Burzewski W. 2004: Hydrocarbon

generation  and  expulsion  processes  based  on  one  dimensional
numerical modelling and generation potential of Carboniferous
strata in the southern part of the Upper Silesian and Małopolska
Blocks. In: Kotarba M.J. (Ed.): Hydrocarbon generation poten-
tial  of  Carboniferous  rocks  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Upper
Silesian  and  Małopolska  Blocks.  TBPŚ  “Geosfera”,  Kraków,
87—116.

Krajewski M., Matyszkiewicz J., Król K. & Olszewska B. 2011:

Facies of the Upper Jurassic—Lower Cretaceous deposits from
the southern part of the Carpathian Foredeep basement in the
Kraków—Rzeszów area (southern Poland). Ann. Soc. Geol. Pol.
81, 3, 269—290.

Majorowicz J. & Plewa S. 1979: Study of heat flow in Poland with

special regard to tectonophysical problems. In: Cermak V. &
Rybach L. (Eds.): Terrestrial heat flow in Europe. Springer—
Verlag, Berlin, 240—251.

Majorowicz J.A., Marek S. & Znosko J. 1984: Paleogeothermal

gradients by vitrinite reflectance data and their relation to the
present geothermal gradient patterns of the Polish Lowland.
Tectonophysics 103, 1—4, 141—156.

Matyja B.A. 2009: Development of the mid-Polish Trough versus

Late Jurassic evolution in the Carpathian Foredeep area. Geol.
Quart. 53, 1, 49—62.

Moryc W. 2006: Geological structure of Miocene substratum in

Kraków—Pilzno Region. Part II. The Permian and Mesozoic pe-
riod. Nafta-Gaz 62, 6, 263—282 (in Polish, English summary).

Myśliwiec M., Borys Z., Bosak B., Liszka B., Madej K., Maksym

A.,  Oleszkiewicz  K.,  Pietrusiak  M.,  Plezia  B.,  Staryszak  G.,
Świętnicka G., Zielińska C., Zychowicz K., Gliniak P., Florek
R.,  Zacharski  J.,  Urbaniec  A.,  Górka  A.,  Karnkowski  P.  &
Karnkowski  P.H.  2006:  Hydrocarbon  resources  of  the  Polish
Carpathian Foredeep: reservoirs, traps, and selected hydrocar-
bon fields. In: Golonka J. & Picha F.J. (Eds.): The Carpathians
and their foreland: Geology and hydrocarbon resources. Amer.
Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Mem. 84, 351—393.

Narkiewicz M., Resak M., Littke R. & Marynowski L. 2010: New

constraints on the Middle Palaeozoic to Cenozoic burial and
thermal history of the Holy Cross Mts. (Central Poland): results
from numerical modelling. Geol. Acta 8, 2, 189—205.

Oszczypko N., Krzywiec P., Popadyuk I. & Peryt T. 2006: Car-

pathian foredeep basin (Poland and Ukraine): Its sedimentary,
structural, and geodimac evolution. In: Golonka J. & Picha F.J.
(Eds.): The Carpathians and their foreland: Geology and hydro-
carbon resources. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Mem. 84, 261—318.

Sweeney J.J. & Burnham A.K. 1990: Evaluation of a simple model

of vitrinite reflectance based on chemical kinetics. Amer. Assoc.
Petrol. Geol. Bull. 74, 10, 1559—1570.

Świdrowska J., Hakenberger M., Poluhtovič B., Seghedi A. &

Višniakov I. 2008: Evolution of the Mesozoic basins of the
Southwestern edge of the East European Craton (Poland,
Ukraine, Moldova, Romania). Stud. Geol. Pol. 130, 1—131.

Ungerer P., Behar F., Villalba M., Heum O.R. & Audibert A. 1988:

Kinetic modelling of oil cracking. Adv. Org. Geochem. 13, 4—6,
857—868.

Urbaniec A., Bobrek L. & Świetlik B. 2010: Lithostratigraphy and

micropalaeontological characteristic of Lower Cretaceous stra-
ta in central part of the Carpathian Foreland. Przegl. Geol. 58,
1161—1175 (in Polish, English summary).

Van der Voo R. 1993: Paleomagnetism of the Atlantic, Tethys and

Iapetus Oceans. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1—411.

Welte D.H., Horsfield B. & Baker D.R. (Eds.) 1997: Petroleum and

basin evolution: Insights from petroleum geochemistry, geology
and basin modelling. Springer—Verlag, Heidelberg, 1—535.

Yalcin M.N., Littke R. & Sachsenhofer R.F. 1997: Thermal history

of sedimentary basins. In: Welte D.H., Horsfield B. & Baker
D.R. (Eds.): Petroleum and basin evolution. Springer—Verlag,
Heidelberg, 71—168.

Zdanowski P., Baszkiewicz A. & Gregosiewicz Z. 2001: Facies

analysis of the uppermost Jurassic and the Lower Cretaceous
deposits in the Zagorzyce region (southern Poland). Przegl.
Geol. 49, 161—178 (in Polish, English summary).