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, DECEMBER 2011, 62, 6, 563—574 doi: 10.2478/v10096-011-0040-9
Introduction
The Pliocene-Quaternary relief evolution of the Central West-
ern Carpathians has been investigated since the middle of the
20
th
century when the role of faults in morphological struc-
tures was recognized (Mičian 1962; Lukniš 1964; Mazúr
1965; Dzurovčin 1994). The study area is located in the north-
ern part of the region formed by the Kozie Chrbty Mountains
and the Hornád Depression. The boundary between the Kozie
Chrbty Mts and the Paleogene Hornád Depression is morpho-
logically distinct, perfectly linear, and it is represented by the
Vikartovce fault (VIF), which is located at the southern foot of
the Kozie Chrbty Mts (Figs. 1, 2). The VIF has been identified
as one of the most distinctive and important young faults of
the Western Carpathians, responsible for the creation of the
near-by graben and horst structures. The fault was regarded as
a neotectonically active dislocation (Roth 1938; Lukniš 1973;
Maglay et al. 1999), due to distinctive morphological expres-
sions of the fault trace, fault related distribution of Quaternary
travertine, change of river courses and capturing due to fault
activity. However, a part of the scientific community re-
mained sceptical about a tectonic origin of the upper reach of
the Hornád Valley, rather interpreting this structure as a nar-
row bay of the Paleogene sediments within the paleo-Alpine
nappe units (Gross et al. 1999b).
At present, the VIF is considered to be a neotectonic dislo-
cation, but no exact data concerning the age are known yet.
According to this hypothesis, the paleo-rivers flowing north-
Late Quaternary fault activity in the Western Carpathians:
evidence from the Vikartovce Fault (Slovakia)
RASTISLAV VOJTKO
1*
, FRANTIŠEK MARKO
1
, FRANK PREUSSER
2
, JÁN MADARÁS
3,4
and
MARIANNA KOVÁČOVÁ
1
1
Department of Geology and Paleontology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Mlynská dolina G, 842 15 Bratislava,
Slovak Republic; *vojtko@fns.uniba.sk;
2
Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology, Stockholm University, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden
3
Dionýz Štúr State Institute of Geology, Mlynská dolina 1, 817 04 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
4
Geophysical Institute, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 845 28 Bratislava, Slovak Republic
(Manuscript received September 6, 2010; accepted in revised form June 9, 2011)
Abstract: The Cenozoic structure of the Western Carpathians is strongly controlled by faults. The E-W striking Vikartovce
fault is one of the most distinctive dislocations in the region, evident by its geological structure and terrain morphology.
This feature has been assumed to be a Quaternary reactivated fault according to many attributes such as its perfect
linearity, faceted slopes, the distribution of travertines along the fault, and also its apparent prominent influence on the
drainage network. The neotectonic character of the fault is documented herein by morphotectonic studies, longitudinal
and transverse valley profile analyses, terrace system analysis, and mountain front sinuosity. Late Pleistocene activity
of the Vikartovce fault is now proven by luminescence dating of fault-cut and uplifted alluvial sediments, presently
located on the crest of the tilted block. These sediments must slightly pre-date the age of river redirection. Considering
the results of both luminescence dating and palynological analyses, the change of river course probably occurred during
the final phase of the Riss Glaciation (135 ± 14 ka). The normal displacement along the fault during the Late Quaternary
has been estimated to about 105—135 m, resulting in an average slip rate of at least 0.8—1.0 mm · yr
—1
. The present results
identify the Vikartovce fault as one of the youngest active faults in the Central Western Carpathians.
Key words: Western Carpathians, Vikartovce fault, Quaternary faulting, luminescence dating, neotectonics, tilting.
wards were disrupted by the Vikartovce fault, along which
the Kozie Chrbty Mts emerged and formed a barrier for these
rivers. This led to the change in the drainage network sys-
tem. The original directions of flows were interrupted and
rivers at the southern foot of the uplifted Kozie Chrbty Mts
turned to the east.
The main goal of this paper is to review the available
knowledge and to summarize the authors’ arguments concern-
ing the neotectonic nature and properties of the VIF. To solve
this topic, a multidisciplinary approach was applied strongly
focused on field investigations. Analysis of structures, sedi-
ments, and landforms appears to be an efficient tool to detect
young faulting. The landforms of the area were evaluated by
field observations and by morphostructural analysis of digital
terrain models (DTM). This paper uses a DTM and associated
software (GRASS-GIS) to prepare set of maps and morpho-
structural parameters revealing the orientation of topographi-
cal features. This allows identification of structural features
(e.g. main joint sets, fault scarps or landslide scarps) that are
involved in rock slope instabilities. Optically Stimulated
Luminescence (OSL) and Infrared Stimulated Luminescence
(IRSL) were used to date the age of the VIF activity, and so
test whether block tilting was the reason for change in the
drainage network. We sampled buried alluvial sediments,
which were formed by ancient river flow, later disrupted by
the VIF and uplifted, now being preserved on a dry saddle
highly elevated above the present river course. From this set-
ting, it is expected that the age of the alluvial deposits just pre-
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dates river interruption and gives the maximum age of the lat-
est activity of the VIF.
General overview
Geological and tectonic setting
The study area belongs to the Central Western Carpathians
(cf. Plašienka et al. 1997; Plašienka 1999). The Kozie Chrbty
and Nízke Tatry Mountains are formed by the Boca Nappe,
which belongs to the Hronic Unit (Fig. 3). It is composed of
a Late Paleozoic volcano-sedimentary succession (Ipoltica
Group) and Triassic, predominantly carbonatic
rocks (Vozárová & Vozár 1988). The south-east-
ern part of the investigated area (Slovenský Raj
Mountains) is composed of the Silicic Unit which
consists predominantly of Triassic carbonatic
rocks with typical Wetterstein (Middle Triassic)
and Dachstein (Upper Triassic) formations (Biely
et al. 1992, 1997; Mello et al. 2000a,b).
The paleo-Alpine nappes form the basement of
the Eocene to Oligocene sedimentation of the
Hornád Depression (Fig. 3). Structurally, this
basin belongs to the Central Carpathian Paleo-
gene Basin (CCPB) which was formed as a mar-
ginal sea of the Peri-Tethyan Basin. It shows a
fore-arc basin position developed on the destruc-
tive plate margin and behind the Outer Car-
pathian accretionary wedge (Soták et al. 2001).
The time span of this sedimentary succession is
expected to be Lutetian to latest Oligocene/Early
Miocene according to nannoplankton evidence
(Soták et al. 1996; Soták 1998; Olszewska &
Wieczorek 1998).
The Quaternary deposits are found mainly on the
Paleogene formations of the Central Carpathian
Paleogene Basin. The spatial distribution and
sediment thickness of the Quaternary deposits is
highly variable, due to landforms and local vari-
ability of sedimentary processes during the Late
Pleistocene to Holocene (Fig. 3). The most com-
mon Quaternary deposits are lithologically undi-
vided slope sediments, representing polygenic
fine-grained sediments, sporadically bearing rub-
ble (Gross et al. 1999a,b). Predominant occur-
rence of these sediments is recorded in flat relief
positions on flysch formations, with a prevailing
content of claystones. Their thickness often ex-
ceeds 2 m (Biely et al. 1997; Mello et al. 2000b).
Late Pleistocene and Holocene fluvial deposits
are located mainly along the Hornád River.
Pleistocene to Holocene travertines are pre-
dominantly situated near Poprad and form indi-
vidual mounds (Fig. 3). The largest travertine
mounds in the Central Western Carpathians are
also located in the eastern continuation of the
VIF in the surrounding of Spiš Castle.
Fig. 1. Shaded elevation map of central Slovakia. The location of the study area
is shown by a black polygon.
Fig. 2. Map of the geomorphological units and recent river catchments.
Explanation: 1 – The Dunajec, 2 – the Váh, 3 – the Hron, 4 – the Poprad,
5 – the Hornád, 6 – the Hnilec, 7 – the Torysa drainage basins. Black line rep-
resents the main watershed in Central Europe; the northern part belongs to the
Baltic Sea and the southern part to the Black Sea Basin. Dotted lines are bound-
aries between geomorphological units presented herein.
Geomorphological setting and drainage systems
The investigated area is located in the northern part of the
region, with a typical morphostructural pattern of substituting
heights and depressions (Figs. 1, 2). The Kozie Chrbty Mts
and the Hornád Depression are elongated in the E-W direction
and have a very narrow shape. The Kozie Chrbty Mts are
rimmed by the Hornád Depression to the south and by the
Poprad Depression to the north.
The watershed between the Poprad and Hornád Rivers has
already drawn the attention of previous research, indicating
that the study area was notably influenced by reorganization
of the river network and drainage basin formation during the
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Fig. 3. Simplified geological map with geological cross-section without Quaternary deposits (modified according to Biely et al. 1992;
Gross et al. 1999a; Mello et al. 2000a).
Quaternary (cf. Roth 1938; Lukniš 1973). Currently, the
Kozie Chrbty Mts, which are a relatively insignificant moun-
tain chain, form part of the main watershed in Central Europe
between the Poprad drainage basin (Vistula River system)
belonging to the Baltic Sea Basin, and the Hornád drainage
basin (Tisa and Danube river system) belonging to the Black
Sea Basin (Fig. 2). The presence of remains of fluvial gravel
on the top of the Kozie Chrbty Mts implies that streams
(paleo-Hornád River and Vernársky potok Stream), originating
from the Nízke Tatry Mountains flowed across the structure
(Roth 1938; Lukniš 1973).
Research methods
Field geological research and drilling
The Quaternary deposits preserved in the deep seated sad-
dles of the Kozie Chrbty horst were mapped in the field us-
ing a 5 m contour interval topographic map at a scale of
1 : 10,000. This mapping was supported by the interpretation
of aerial ortho-photographs and DTM at a scale of 1 : 10,000,
with a cell size of 5 m. According to the results of the field
geological research, sites for drilling were selected. A drill
diameter size of 20 cm was used to recover cores that are
suitable to be used for luminescence dating. Three boreholes
were drilled with drilling depths of 7 (V-1), 12 (V-2), and 22
meters (V-3) respectively. The cores were logged with re-
gard to their sedimentological properties.
Source maps, data and GIS applications
Radar data and 3D visualization were used for identification
and description of map-scale structures and for establishing a
terrain shape digital model. A DTM was derived from vector-
ized contours of topographic maps at a scale of 1 : 10,000 with
a cell size of 5 m. For a broader view, the DTM was based on
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) with spatial reso-
lution three-arc-second (Jarvis et al. 2008). Topographic, lon-
gitudinal, and transverse river valley profiles were also
constructed on these DTM based raster maps.
Information from geological maps at a scale of 1 : 50,000
(Biely et al. 1992; Gross et al. 1999a; Mello et al. 2000b)
and 1 : 200,000 (Polák et al. 2008; Mello et al. 2008) was
cross-checked with new observations in the most relevant
parts of the study area.
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Elevation, slope and drainage network
The altitude, slope, and aspect were modelled and used for
morphometric analysis. These parameters were computed us-
ing GRASS-GIS software (GRASS Development Team,
2010). The GRASS-GIS software calculates the orientation of
each cell of the DTM using regularized spline with tension
method for approximation from vector data using the v.surf.rst
from vectorized contours of the maps at a scale of 1 : 10,000.
The module does not require input data with topology, there-
fore both level 1 (no topology) and level 2 (with topology)
vector point data are supported. Additional points are used for
approximation between each two points on a line if the dis-
tance between them is greater than specified dmax. If dmax is
small (less than cell size) the number of added data points
can be very large and slow down approximation significantly.
The implementation has a segmentation procedure based on
quad-trees which enhances the efficiency for large data sets
(GRASS Development Team 2010).
Morphometric parameters are computed directly from the ap-
proximation function so that the important relationships be-
tween these parameters are preserved. The equations for
computation of these parameters and their interpretation are ful-
ly described in Mitášová & Mitáš (1993) and Mitášová &
Hofierka (1993). Slope angles are computed in degrees (0—90).
The derivation of the drainage basins was carried out by the
r.watershed module of the GRASS-GIS software by defining
the critical source area with the threshold using the parameters
of basin and half.basin (Kinner et al. 2005; GRASS Develop-
ment Team 2010). The selection of an adequate threshold was
crucial, because it defines the dimensions of the valleys to be
analysed. The threshold represents the minimum size of an ex-
terior watershed basin in cells when no flow map is available
for input, or overland flow units when there is a flow map. Ac-
cordingly, for the recognition of systematic drainage features
indicative of neotectonic deformation, a qualitative analysis of
the drainage pattern was also essential (Delcaillau 2001;
Schumm et al. 2002).
Mountain front sinuosity
The mountain front is especially defined by the value of the
change of slope inclination. The linearity of the mountain
front was quantified by a slightly reinterpreted S index (Bull &
McFadden 1977):
S = L
mf
· L
s
—1
,
where L
mf
is the total length of the considered segment of the
mountain front and L
s
is the length of abscissa between the
start and end points of the considered segment of mountain
front. The L
s
value reflects the real course of the fault system
on which the mountain front was developed. An S value ap-
proaching 1.0 indicates a very linear mountain front which
points towards young deformational activity along the fron-
tal structures. Higher values indicate a degraded mountain
front, which results from tectonic inactivity (interconnected
with weathering conditions) or extremely fast weathering
processes. However, Bull & McFadden (1977) originally de-
veloped the S index for straight mountain fronts. As tilted
and rotated blocks of various volumes are common in the
Western Carpathians, this produces complex fault systems,
hence not straight but often curved patterns. As a conse-
quence, the use of L
s
values in a traditional way may produce
incorrect results and we therefore experimented with tuning
the L
s
values. There are high prepositions, that the fault sys-
tem limits well preserved facets and underlying flat base sur-
faces. Therefore we used the idealized mountain front
defined by the flow-line, which delimits the lower facet’s L
edges (cf. Vojtko et al. 2011).
Normalized longitudinal valley profiles and stream gradient
Generally, a fluvial system reacts to tectonic influences by
changing its longitudinal and transverse river profiles, its
channel pattern, and/or its sediment discharge. Longitudinal
and transverse river profiles were constructed based on the
DTM with cell sizes of 5 5 meters.
The longitudinal river profiles were analysed as most com-
monly practised (Hack 1973; Demoulin 1998; Wobus et al.
2006). Their quantified parameters are used to compare dif-
ferent drainage systems, and specifically, to identify the re-
sponse of neotectonic activities in the drainage basins. Data
were obtained from the DTM using the GRASS-GIS module
r.drain which traces a flow through a minimum grid value
path in a DTM.
Normalized longitudinal river profiles were applied to de-
scribe the geomorphic response of rivers in regions with ac-
tive tectonics (Zuchiewicz 1991, 1998; Demoulin 1998;
Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. 2009). The advantage of these pro-
files is the direct comparison of valleys with different lengths
and absolute gradients because they are dimensionless
(Fig. 4). The abscissa is d/D, where D is the profile length and
d is the distance of the individual data points from the stream
source at one end of the profile. The ordinate represents the
normalized elevation to the absolute gradient along the valley
(e/E) where E is the absolute elevation (E = E
max
—E
min
) and e
is the elevation of individual data points along the profile.
Normalized profiles characterize the degree of grading of a
river where z
max
is the maximal concavity, and d/D is the
normalized distance of z
max
from the source (Fig. 4). The area
on the plot between the valley profile and the straight line
connecting the source and the outlet of the valley is the con-
cavity index in percent. Theoretically, this index lies be-
tween 0.0 (0 %) and 0.5 (100 %). Higher values indicate a
more concave profile, or a more highly graded river (Demoulin
1998; Molin et al. 2004; Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. 2009).
The stream gradient (SG) was calculated for successive
100-m-long segments along the stream. The sensitivity of the
SG to changes in the channel slope makes it possible to evalu-
ate the relationships between tectonic activity, rock resistance,
and topography.
Luminescence dating
Luminescence allows the dating of the last daylight expo-
sure of quartz and feldspar grains using a latent light-sensitive
signal within the minerals that is erased during sediment trans-
port. During burial, when the grains are sealed from daylight,
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the latent luminescence signal is induced within the minerals
by the interaction of ionizing radiation with the crystal lattice.
Detailed reviews of the methodology have recently been pro-
vided by, for example, Wintle (2008) and Preusser et al.
(2008, 2009). For age calculation, two values have to be deter-
mined, the amount of radiation dose absorbed and stored as la-
tent luminescence signal by the mineral (D
e
) and the dose rate
(D), which means the amount of radiation dose per year.
For this study, material recovered by coring was transferred
to the luminescence laboratories in Bern and the outer 5 cm,
contaminated during the coring process and potentially ex-
posed to daylight, were removed. Sediment from the inner
part was prepared for D
e
determination applying standard
chemical pre-treatments (HCl, H
2
O
2
, Na-oxalate) followed by
density separation (LST Fast Flow
©
with densities of
2.70 g · cm
—3
and 2.58 g · cm
—3
). The quartz fraction was etched
with 40% HF for one hour, rinsed with demineralized water,
and subsequently treated with HCl to remove fluorites. Small
aliquots (2 mm) were used for D
e
determination applying
modified versions of the Single-Aliquot Regenerative dose
(SAR) protocol (cf. Murray & Wintle 2000; Wintle & Murray
2006). The purity of quartz separates was routinely checked
by exposure to IR diodes and aliquots showing a significant
IR response were rejected from D
e
determination. D
e
was cal-
culated using Optically Stimulated Stimulated (OSL) from
quartz (60 s stimulation at 125 °C) and Infrared Stimulated
Luminescence (IRSL) from feldspar (300 s stimulation at
30 °C). Preheating at 230° for 10 s (quartz) and 290° for
10 s (K-feldspar) prior to all luminescence measurements was
done according to the results of standard performance tests
(dose recovery, thermal transfer). No evidence for anomalous
fading in K-feldspar was observed in storage tests. The shape
of quartz OSL decay curves of samples VIF1 and VIF2 indi-
cates strong presences of medium components reported to
cause significant age shortfall (Steffen et al. 2009). For the
lower part of the sequences, we interpret the IRSL ages as
probably reflecting the real deposition age of the samples and
the apparent OSL ages for this part are actually inconsistent
with stratigraphy and the rest of the dating results.
Dose rates were determined using low-level high-resolution
gamma spectrometry (cf. Preusser & Kasper 2001). Equilib-
rium of the decay chain of
238
U was investigated using the ap-
proaches described in Preusser & Degering (2007) and Zander
et al. (2007). While samples VIF1 and VIF2 are likely in equi-
librium, the other two samples show some weak evidence for
open system behaviour, namely a loss of
238
U in VIF3 and
a gain of
238
U in VIF4. However, this is regarded as having a
negligible effect on age determination.
Results
Geological and geomorphological survey
The Kozie Chrbty Mts are oriented in an E-W direction with
a length of more than 20 km and a width ranging from 1 to
5 km. Elevations (E) within the study area vary between 417
and 1259 m a.s.l., with the average altitude approximately
740 m a.s.l. The slope map enhances the general E-W oriented
geomorphic features such as the Kozie Chrbty Mts and the
Hornád Basin (Fig. 5).
In the Vysová pass, a system of degradational terraces is
very well preserved (Fig. 6). The terrace system of the ancient
Hornád River is located on the eastern slopes of Kozí Kameň
Mount and the western slopes of the Krížová Mount at a
higher elevation than the Vysová pass. The older terraces than
the flattened surface of the Vysová pass are arranged into four
levels with preserved gravel remnants. These remnants are
composed predominantly of Upper Permian sandstones, dia-
base, basalt pebbles of the Hronic Unit, and also Paleogene
sandstones of the Central Carpathian Paleogene Basin. The
younger terraces belong to the modern Hornád River alluvial
sediments on the Vysová pass. This terrace system is located
predominantly on the southern slope of the Kozie Chrbty Mts
horst and it is not well-developed due to high basal erosion
during and after the VIF activity.
Mountain front sinuosity
In context of the morphotectonic pattern, the VIF is repre-
sented especially by contrast relief’ landforms (facet slopes
vs. flat surfaces). This fault is also associated with the south-
ern mountain front of the Kozie Chrbty horst. The S index
reaches from 1.05 to 1.07 within the study area (Fig. 5). This
is close to the value of 1.0 which expresses the identity of the
low-destructed and real mountain front line. The fact that the
actual mountain front is low-destructed by exogenic processes
refers to a considerable role of very young tectonics in the
shaping of these contrast relief landforms.
Longitudinal valley profiles and stream gradients
Normalized longitudinal river profiles (Fig. 7) and their
concavity parameters were computed to identify vertical de-
Fig. 4. Normalized longitudinal river valley profiles. Further expla-
nation see in the text.
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Fig. 5.
Slope map with principal geomorphological units and location o
f analysed longitudinal river valley profiles. The slopes were
computed using DTM with the intervals. The trace of the Vikar-
tovce
fault
is
shown
by
black
solid
and
mountain
front
sinuosit
y
by
black
dashed
lines.
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Fig. 6. Map of the Pleistocene terrace system in the Vysová pass
neighbourhood with the location of the boreholes.
Table 1: Morphometric parameters of normalized longitudinal valley
profiles in the Kozie Chrbty horst. Explanations: Name – name of
analysed profiles, D – total distance from the source to confluence
with the Hornád or Poprad rivers, E – absolute gradient, Gr – rela-
tive gradient (E /D), z
max
– maximal concavity, d/D – distance of
z
max
from the source and – concavity index. Note, location of
streams is shown in Fig. 5.
formations and state of stream development affecting the
drainage network of the study area. Therefore, a total of nine
longitudinal river profiles were analysed and their location is
shown in Fig. 5. The maximum concavities (z
max
) are 0.10—
0.31 for the Stream # 2 and Kvetnica S stream respectively,
and their positions are very irregular which depends on the
type of valley and azimuthal orientation. The ratio d/D was
computed from 0.22—0.82 for the Stream # 2 and Vysová S
stream respectively. The concavity index varies from 6.52
for the Vysová S to 28.18 for the Vysová N streams. The
analysed streams in the study area belong to the Hornád
drainage basin except the Vysová N stream whith belongs to
the Poprad drainage basin (Fig. 2). These streams can be di-
vided into two groups based on computed d / D, z
max
and
parameters from the normalized longitudinal river profiles
(Table 1).
The streams that flow from the Kozie Chrbty horst towards
the south are characterized by small concavity with vary-
ing from 6.52 to 24.79, and very variable d / D and z
max
pa-
rameters (Table 1). These streams also have complicated
shapes on the graphs of the longitudinal river profiles
(Fig. 7). The lower parts of the river profiles are generally
concave in shape, which then changes increasingly to con-
vex towards the head of the stream. Finally, the upper parts
have also concave shape. The knick-points in the longitudi-
nal river profiles regularly appear approximately 150—250 m
upstream from the foothill and indicate young tectonic activ-
ity along the southern margin of the Kozie Chrbty horst
(Fig. 7). The lowermost and the uppermost courses are gen-
erally well-graded, unlike the middle parts of the streams,
which are evidently influenced by vertical movements of ter-
rain blocks along the VIF.
Stream gradients of valleys located on the southern side of
the Kozie Chrbty Mountains are more curved and reach val-
ues greater than 14 (Fig. 8). Interestingly, the stream gradi-
ent curves are almost identical. The maximum stream
gradient is generally located 150—250 m from the southern
mountain front of the Kozie Chrbty horst. In contrast, the up-
per courses of the streams are characterized by low gradients
generally not exceeding 7.5.
The longitudinal river profile of the Kvetnica N is very
specific because the stream flows from the Kozie Chrbty
horst towards the north and then rapidly changes its flow di-
rection towards the east and south-east. The upper reach be-
longs to a paleo-stream and the central and lower parts of the
valley are evidently affected by river piracy which is record-
ed by its complicated shape (Figs. 7, 8).
The Vysová N stream is the second stream that flows to-
wards the north and can be characterized as a graded stream
with the highest = 28.18, quite high d / D and z
max
para-
meters (sensu Mackin 1948). This stream has a characteristic
concave upward profile and it was not influenced by active
faulting during the Quaternary Period. The ancient valley lo-
cated north of the Vysová pass is influenced by river capture
and at present it is characterized by a very low stream gradi-
ent which does not exceed a value of 7 (Fig. 8). The whole
upper reach of this valley has a very low stream gradient
(less than 5), but the lower part near the confluence with the
Poprad River is already affected by headward erosion after
reorganization of the river network (Lacika 1998). The main
valleys on the northern side of the mountain are affected by
lateral erosion. The shape of the valleys is more open than
the previous ones and the valleys are significantly filled by
slope sediments derived from the slopes along the valleys.
The thickness of slope sediment reaches up to 13 m, as in the
Vysová pass (Fig. 8).
No.
Name
D [m] E [m] Gr [m/km] z
max
d/D
[%]
1 Kvetnica N 14773 204
13.82
0.28
0.42 28.12
2 Kvetnica S 1697 142
83.92
0.31
0.62 22.45
3
Stream 1 3521 334
94.83
0.16
0.50 20.32
4
Stream 2 2775 323
116.24
0.10
0.22 14.15
5
Stream 3 1035 39
37.31
0.24
0.74 24.79
6
Stream 4 1118 54
48.52
0.20
0.78 16.04
7
Stream 5 1327 102
76.77
0.17
0.31 17.38
8
Stream 6 1600 77
48.24
0.21
0.40 27.09
9 Vysová N 6296 76
12.00
0.23
0.35 28.18
10
Vysová S 1542 114
73.72
0.11
0.82 6.52
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Fig. 7. Normalized longitudinal river val-
ley profiles. The position of the Vikar-
tovce fault is indicated by arrows and
main knick-points by circle.
Fig. 8. Stream gradients. The abscissa is
L–the profile length in meters and the
ordinate represents stream gradient (SG)
in meters for successive 100-m-long seg-
ments along the stream. The position of the
Vikartovce fault is indicated by arrows.
Age of the Vikartovce fault activity
According to our hypothesis, the
alluvial sediments which were pre-
served in the Vysová pass can date
the VIF tectonic activity. The fluvial
sediments were first described from
the Poprad brick-yard, north of the
Kozie Chrbty Mts (Lukniš 1973).
From the lithology of these river
sediments its source area was in the
Nízke Tatry Mts, indicating a north-
bound transport. Recently no river
or stream of this course exists on the
northern slope of the horst with the
capacity to transport the described
alluvial deposits. This is an impor-
tant argument to support the barrier/
tilting model described above. The
age of alluvial sediments deposited
by the former river probably dates
the age of river interruption, which
simultaneously slightly pre-dates the
age of the VIF Quaternary activity.
Due to recultivation, the old brick-
yard disappeared and extensive ur-
banization in the area of Poprad town
did not allow any surveys. However,
following the observations by Roth
(1938) and Lukniš (1973), we ex-
pected alluvial sediments of a former
N—S river flowing cross-cutting the
Kozie Chrbty horst at the presently
dry Vysová pass (Fig. 6).
Based on evidence from geological
field investigation and geophysical
profiling, three shallow boreholes
(V-1, V-2, and V-3) were drilled to
sample the alluvial sediments. The
third borehole (V-3) was used for
sampling (Fig. 6). It penetrated
brownish/yellowish
sandy
loam
(slope sediments) in the upper part of
the profile at a depth of 0.0—12.8 m
and a sequence of grey sands interca-
lated by clays and pebble clays at a
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
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depth of 12.8—17.2 m. The lower portion of the profile, under
alluvial deposits at a depth of 17.2—22 m, represents a strongly
weathered horizon of eluvial deposits (Fig. 9). This weathered
horizon comprises numerous bedrock clasts but the borehole
did not penetrate the bedrock itself.
Samples for OSL/IRSL dating were taken from the top of
the weathered horizon (VIF1: 18.2 m), the alluvial sediments
(VIF2: 15.7 m, VIF3: 13.2 m), and the lowermost part of over-
lying slope sediments (VIF4: 12.7 m). As stated above, the
OSL ages for the two lower samples are considered unreliable.
Fig. 9. The V-3 drill log with indications of sampling points, location and palynological analyses of alluvial horizon.
Table 2: Summary of luminescence data giving the grain size investigated, the number of replicate measurements for D
e
determination (n),
the concentration of dose rate relevant elements K, Th, and U (1 = as determined for
238
U from 186 keV line, 2 = mean of
214
Pb and
214
Bi
lines), W = water content used for dose rate calculation, sampling depth below present surface, dose rate (D) calculated using U (2), mean
D
e
, and resulting IRSL (feldspar) and OSL (quartz) age. * – Quartz OSL ages are significantly underestimated due to the presence of a
strong medium component in the signal.
The age for material from the weathered horizon, probably
representing input from slope processes, is dated to 167±11 ka
(IRSL). Ages for the alluvial sediments are (Table 2):
135 ± 14 ka (IRSL), 143 ± 9 ka (IRSL), and 114 ± 9 ka (OSL).
In addition to luminescence dating, palynological analyses
of the alluvial horizon were carried out. The sample was se-
lected from a thin (17 cm) intercalation of dark grey clay in-
side the alluvial horizon at a depth of 14.5 m (Fig. 9). The
most frequent taxa in the analysed clay horizon represent
herbs (Artemisia, Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae) and a small
Sample
Grain size
[µm]
n K
[%]
Th
[ppm]
U (1)
[ppm]
U (2)
[ppm]
W
[%]
Depth
[m]
D
[Gy ka
–1
]
D
e
[Gy]
Age
[ka]
VIF4F
200–250
15 1.80 ± 0.07 4.76 ± 0.07 0.80 ± 0.33 1.08 ± 0.01 15 ± 5 12.5
2.82 ± 0.17 494.2 ± 9.0
175 ± 11
VIF4Q
200–250
15 1.80 ± 0.07 4.76 ± 0.07 0.80 ± 0.33 1.08 ± 0.01 15 ± 5 12.5
2.00 ± 0.16
255.0± 18.2 128 ± 13
VIF3F
200–250
15 1.60 ± 0.07 5.54 ± 0.26 1.81 ± 0.50 1.17 ± 0.06 15 ± 5 13.0
2.73 ± 0.18 369.2 ± 29.9 135 ± 14
VIF3Q
200–250
15 1.60 ± 0.07 5.54 ± 0.26 1.17 ± 0.06 1.17 ± 0.06 15 ± 5 13.0
1.90 ± 0.13 215.4 ± 5.5
114 ± 9
VIF2F
200–250
15 2.33 ± 0.09 7.37 ± 0.08 1.55 ± 0.46 1.57 ± 0.01 15 ± 5 16.7
3.50 ± 0.21 500.5 ± 10.4 143 ± 9
VIF2Q
200–250
3 2.33 ± 0.09 7.37 ± 0.08 1.57 ± 0.01 1.57 ± 0.01 15 ± 5 16.7
2.67 ± 0.18 184.1 ± 20.6
69 ± 9 *
VIF1F
200–250
15 1.99 ± 0.08 6.68 ± 0.24 1.32 ± 0.64 1.42 ± 0.05 15 ± 5 18.0
3.12 ± 0.14 524.6 ± 10.9 167 ± 11
VIF1Q
200–250
3 1.99 ± 0.08 6.68 ± 0.24 1.42 ± 0.05 1.42 ± 0.05 15 ± 5 18.0
2.31 ± 0.17 110.7 ± 26.5 48 ± 12 *
.
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proportion of Pinus and Betula is also recorded. This assem-
blage points towards an open landscape without forest (Lang
1994; Jankovská et al. 2002). The vegetation recorded in this
sediment, especially the presence of Betula nana, high val-
ues of Artemisia and Poaceae indicate rather cool climatic
conditions (Fig. 9).
Interpretation
The Vikartovce fault (VIF) is interpreted as normal fault
system with dipping of the fault plane southward. The total
slip along the Vikartovce fault for the period ca. 135 ka to
present is approximately given by the difference in altitude
between the top of the Rissian deposits on the pass and the
Hornád alluvial plain. It is estimated to 105—135 m. Please
note that this is only the vertical slip along the fault and that
the horizontal component of movement is currently not
known. Using these data, the average movement along the
VIF is between 0.8 and 1.0 mm · yr
—1
. In the Western Car-
pathians, a velocity of vertical movements of approximately
1 mm a year during the Quaternary Period was also con-
firmed in the area of Turiec Basin (Kováč et al. 2011) and
the Horná Nitra Basin (Vojtko et al. 2011) based on sedi-
mentological and morphostructural data. Recent faulting is
attended by seismic activity recorded by historical and con-
temporary earthquakes in the study area (Cipciar et al. 2009).
The erosional rate for the last 135 ka was not estimated be-
cause of lack of any relevant data. Several small and at least
one principal knick-points along the individual longitudinal
river profiles in the southern part of the Kozie Chrby Mts
support irregular movement along the VIF fault. This im-
plies that the active movement occurred only occasionally
and it was separated by periods of fault inactivity. Unfortu-
nately, there are no data available with regard to the frequency
of active faulting. However, some indications were observed
such as knick-points on longitudinal river valley profiles.
The regular knick-points are distinct along the whole moun-
tain boundary and they are interpreted as degraded fault
scarps during the last higher tectonic activity (younger than
135 ka). Generally, the computed values of the southern
streams imply active movement of the Vikartovce fault. De-
viations from the graded longitudinal river profiles are indic-
ative of external influences, especially neotectonic activity
as is expected here (Holbrook & Schumm 1999; Gelabert et
al. 2005).
The most likely mechanism for the horst origin was block
tilting, where the VIF operated as a boundary normal fault of
the tilted block (Kozie Chrbty horst). An argument supporting
this interpretation is the observed asymmetry of the horst,
which is typical of tilted blocks. The northern slopes of the
horst are low angle, while the southern slopes are steep, repre-
senting more or less the Vikartovce fault scarp. We expect that
the VIF itself is steeply dipping to the south as well.
The lower age limit for river redirection, and as a conse-
quence the maximum age of fault triggering, is given by these
ages. For the slope sediments, post-dating this event, the OSL
age of 128 ± 13 ka is consistent with the age estimates of the
alluvial sediments, while the IRSL age of 175 ± 11 ka is appar-
ently overestimated (Table 2).
In combination with the results from luminescence dating,
the deposition of the fluvial sediments is correlated to the tran-
sition from the Riss Glaciation towards the Last Interglacial
(Eemian), that is sometime around 135 ka (Figs. 9, 10). This
age most probably pre-dates the Pleistocene activity of the VIF.
Conclusions
The morphotectonic, geological, sedimentological, structur-
al, and geochronological evidence for the Quaternary activity
of the Vikartovce fault has been summarized here. The Kozie
Chrbty horst has a distinct morphological asymmetry, where
the southern slopes along the VIF are steep and the northern
slope is generally flat (Fig. 5). The normalized longitudinal
profiles show principal knick-points on curves which are con-
sidered to be retreated fault scarps after the last higher move-
ment of the VIF. The knick-points are located approximately
150—250 m north of the present VIF trace (Fig. 7). Moreover,
the differences between stream gradient on the southern (high
gradient) and northern (low gradient) valleys of the Kozie
Chrbty horst is conspicuous (Fig. 8). This asymmetric pattern
is caused by VIF activity and block tilting.
The most expressive argument of the Vikartovce fault
Quaternary activity is the change of the drainage network
due to fault-related block separation. Fossil rivers originally
flowing from the south to the north were disrupted by the
Vikartovce fault, and then fault controlled tilting created a
barrier – an asymmetric horst, what led to the change in riv-
ers course from the S-N to W-E (Fig. 5). Luminescence dat-
ing was used for the first time in the Slovak Carpathians,
indicating that alluvial sediments deposited by the fault-cut
fossil river have an age of around 135 ka (Table 2). It cate-
gorizes the Vikartovce fault to the youngest confirmed dislo-
cation in the Western Carpathians. During the late stages of
the Quaternary, the fault has been activated as a very dynam-
Fig. 10. IRSL age span of fossil river sediments and the related age of
the VIF activity triggering in comparison with climate curve (after
Gibbard & Cohen 2008) corresponding to the described palyno-taxa
assemblage (Fig. 9).
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ical structure, and it declares the Late Pleistocene fault sepa-
ration. The vertical separation along the fault for this stage
has been estimated as 105—135 m.
The speed of movement (computed only for vertical compo-
nent) along the Vikartovce fault ranges between 0.8 and
1.0 mm · yr
—1
, calculated as average speed which is equal to to-
tal distance covered divided by total time required. Anyway,
slip rates from 1 to 2 mm · yr
—1
might be considered average
for major, active faults (Yeats et al. 1997). All mentioned
properties of the VIF are typical for active faulting with seis-
mic capability. Figuring out the rate of slip along faults is a
key to understanding the relative “importance” of faults in an
area, and the geological and seismic hazard those faults
present to local residents and developments.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Slovak
Research and Development Agency under the contract No.
APVV-0158-06. We are grateful to Dr. Kamil Ustaszewski
and Dr. Herfried Madritsch who inspired and encouraged us
to carry out luminescence dating in our research. We also
thank Dr. Herfried Madritsch, Prof. Klaus Reicherter and
Dr. Jozef Vozár for the detailed reviews of this paper and
constructive comments.
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