GeolCarp_Vol62_No6_563

www.geologicacarpathica.sk

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, DECEMBER 2011, 62, 6, 563—574 doi: 10.2478/v10096-011-0040-9

Introduction

The Pliocene-Quaternary relief evolution of the Central West-
ern Carpathians has been investigated since the middle of the
20

century when the role of faults in morphological struc-

tures  was  recognized  (Mičian  1962;  Lukniš  1964;  Mazúr
1965; Dzurovčin 1994). The study area is located in the north-
ern part of the region formed by the Kozie Chrbty Mountains
and the Hornád Depression. The boundary between the Kozie
Chrbty Mts and the Paleogene Hornád Depression is morpho-
logically distinct, perfectly linear, and it is represented by the
Vikartovce fault (VIF), which is located at the southern foot of
the Kozie Chrbty Mts (Figs. 1, 2). The VIF has been identified
as  one  of  the  most  distinctive  and  important  young  faults  of
the  Western  Carpathians,  responsible  for  the  creation  of  the
near-by graben and horst structures. The fault was regarded as
a neotectonically active dislocation (Roth 1938; Lukniš 1973;
Maglay et al. 1999), due to distinctive morphological expres-
sions of the fault trace, fault related distribution of Quaternary
travertine, change of river courses and capturing due to fault
activity.  However,  a  part  of  the  scientific  community  re-
mained sceptical about a tectonic origin of the upper reach of
the Hornád Valley, rather interpreting this structure as a nar-
row  bay  of  the  Paleogene  sediments  within  the  paleo-Alpine
nappe units (Gross et al. 1999b).

At present, the VIF is considered to be a neotectonic dislo-

cation, but no exact data concerning the age are known yet.
According to this hypothesis, the paleo-rivers flowing north-

Late Quaternary fault activity in the Western Carpathians:

evidence from the Vikartovce Fault (Slovakia)

RASTISLAV VOJTKO

, FRANTIŠEK MARKO

, FRANK PREUSSER

, JÁN MADARÁS

3,4

and

MARIANNA KOVÁČOVÁ

Department of Geology and Paleontology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Mlynská dolina G, 842 15 Bratislava,

Slovak Republic; *vojtko@fns.uniba.sk;

Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology, Stockholm University, 10691 Stockholm, Sweden

Dionýz Štúr State Institute of Geology, Mlynská dolina 1, 817 04 Bratislava, Slovak Republic

Geophysical Institute, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 845 28 Bratislava, Slovak Republic

(Manuscript received September 6, 2010; accepted in revised form June 9, 2011)

Abstract: The Cenozoic structure of the Western Carpathians is strongly controlled by faults. The E-W striking Vikartovce
fault is one of the most distinctive dislocations in the region, evident by its geological structure and terrain morphology.
This feature has been assumed to be a Quaternary reactivated fault according to many attributes such as its perfect
linearity, faceted slopes, the distribution of travertines along the fault, and also its apparent prominent influence on the
drainage network. The neotectonic character of the fault is documented herein by morphotectonic studies, longitudinal
and transverse valley profile analyses, terrace system analysis, and mountain front sinuosity. Late Pleistocene activity
of the Vikartovce fault is now proven by luminescence dating of fault-cut and uplifted alluvial sediments, presently
located on the crest of the tilted block. These sediments must slightly pre-date the age of river redirection. Considering
the results of both luminescence dating and palynological analyses, the change of river course probably occurred during
the final phase of the Riss Glaciation (135 ± 14 ka). The normal displacement along the fault during the Late Quaternary
has been estimated to about 105—135 m, resulting in an average slip rate of at least 0.8—1.0 mm · yr

—1

. The present results

identify the Vikartovce fault as one of the youngest active faults in the Central Western Carpathians.

Key words: Western Carpathians, Vikartovce fault, Quaternary faulting, luminescence dating, neotectonics, tilting.

wards  were  disrupted  by  the  Vikartovce  fault,  along  which
the Kozie Chrbty Mts emerged and formed a barrier for these
rivers.  This  led  to  the  change  in  the  drainage  network  sys-
tem.  The  original  directions  of  flows  were  interrupted  and
rivers at the southern foot of the uplifted Kozie Chrbty Mts
turned to the east.

The main goal of this paper is to review the available

knowledge and to summarize the authors’ arguments concern-
ing the neotectonic nature and properties of the VIF. To solve
this  topic,  a  multidisciplinary  approach  was  applied  strongly
focused  on  field  investigations.  Analysis  of  structures,  sedi-
ments, and landforms appears to be an efficient tool to detect
young faulting. The landforms of the area were evaluated by
field observations and by morphostructural analysis of digital
terrain models (DTM). This paper uses a DTM and associated
software  (GRASS-GIS)  to  prepare  set  of  maps  and  morpho-
structural parameters revealing the orientation of topographi-
cal  features.  This  allows  identification  of  structural  features
(e.g. main joint sets, fault scarps or landslide scarps) that are
involved  in  rock  slope  instabilities.  Optically  Stimulated
Luminescence  (OSL)  and  Infrared  Stimulated  Luminescence
(IRSL) were used to date the age of the VIF activity, and so
test  whether  block  tilting  was  the  reason  for  change  in  the
drainage  network.  We  sampled  buried  alluvial  sediments,
which  were  formed  by  ancient  river  flow,  later  disrupted  by
the  VIF  and  uplifted,  now  being  preserved  on  a  dry  saddle
highly elevated above the present river course. From this set-
ting, it is expected that the age of the alluvial deposits just pre-

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 6, 563—574

dates river interruption and gives the maximum age of the lat-
est activity of the VIF.

General overview

Geological and tectonic setting

The study area belongs to the Central Western Carpathians

(cf. Plašienka et al. 1997; Plašienka 1999). The Kozie Chrbty
and Nízke Tatry Mountains are formed by the Boca Nappe,
which belongs to the Hronic Unit (Fig. 3). It is composed of
a Late Paleozoic volcano-sedimentary succession (Ipoltica

Group)  and  Triassic,  predominantly  carbonatic
rocks (Vozárová & Vozár 1988). The south-east-
ern  part  of  the  investigated  area  (Slovenský  Raj
Mountains) is composed of the Silicic Unit which
consists  predominantly  of  Triassic  carbonatic
rocks with typical Wetterstein (Middle Triassic)
and Dachstein (Upper Triassic) formations (Biely
et al. 1992, 1997; Mello et al. 2000a,b).

The paleo-Alpine nappes form the basement of

the  Eocene  to  Oligocene  sedimentation  of  the
Hornád  Depression  (Fig. 3).  Structurally,  this
basin  belongs  to  the  Central  Carpathian  Paleo-
gene Basin (CCPB) which was formed as a mar-
ginal  sea  of  the  Peri-Tethyan  Basin.  It  shows  a
fore-arc basin position developed on the destruc-
tive  plate  margin  and  behind  the  Outer  Car-
pathian  accretionary  wedge  (Soták  et  al.  2001).
The time span of this sedimentary succession is
expected to be Lutetian to latest Oligocene/Early
Miocene  according  to  nannoplankton  evidence
(Soták  et  al.  1996;  Soták  1998;  Olszewska  &
Wieczorek 1998).

The Quaternary deposits are found mainly on the

Paleogene  formations  of  the  Central  Carpathian
Paleogene  Basin.  The  spatial  distribution  and
sediment  thickness  of  the  Quaternary  deposits  is
highly  variable,  due  to  landforms  and  local  vari-
ability  of  sedimentary  processes  during  the  Late
Pleistocene  to  Holocene  (Fig. 3).  The  most  com-
mon  Quaternary  deposits  are  lithologically  undi-
vided  slope  sediments,  representing  polygenic
fine-grained  sediments,  sporadically  bearing  rub-
ble  (Gross  et  al. 1999a,b).  Predominant  occur-
rence of these sediments is recorded in flat relief
positions  on  flysch  formations,  with  a  prevailing
content  of  claystones.  Their  thickness  often  ex-
ceeds 2 m (Biely et al. 1997; Mello et al. 2000b).
Late  Pleistocene  and  Holocene  fluvial  deposits
are located mainly along the Hornád River.

Pleistocene to Holocene travertines are pre-

dominantly  situated  near  Poprad  and  form  indi-
vidual  mounds  (Fig. 3).  The  largest  travertine
mounds  in  the  Central  Western  Carpathians  are
also  located  in  the  eastern  continuation  of  the
VIF in the surrounding of Spiš Castle.

Fig. 1. Shaded elevation map of central Slovakia. The location of the study area
is shown by a black polygon.

Fig. 2. Map of the geomorphological units and recent river catchments.
Explanation: 1 – The Dunajec, 2 – the Váh, 3 – the Hron, 4 – the Poprad,
5 – the Hornád, 6 – the Hnilec, 7 – the Torysa drainage basins. Black line rep-
resents the main watershed in Central Europe; the northern part belongs to the
Baltic Sea and the southern part to the Black Sea Basin. Dotted lines are bound-
aries between geomorphological units presented herein.

Geomorphological setting and drainage systems

The investigated area is located in the northern part of the

region, with a typical morphostructural pattern of substituting
heights  and  depressions  (Figs. 1,  2).  The  Kozie  Chrbty  Mts
and the Hornád Depression are elongated in the E-W direction
and  have  a  very  narrow  shape.  The  Kozie  Chrbty  Mts  are
rimmed  by  the  Hornád  Depression  to  the  south  and  by  the
Poprad Depression to the north.

The watershed between the Poprad and Hornád Rivers has

already drawn the attention of previous research, indicating
that the study area was notably influenced by reorganization
of the river network and drainage basin formation during the

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 6, 563—574

Fig. 3. Simplified geological map with geological cross-section without Quaternary deposits (modified according to Biely et al. 1992;
Gross et al. 1999a; Mello et al. 2000a).

Quaternary  (cf.  Roth  1938;  Lukniš  1973).  Currently,  the
Kozie Chrbty Mts, which are a relatively insignificant moun-
tain chain, form part of the main watershed in Central Europe
between  the  Poprad  drainage  basin  (Vistula  River  system)
belonging to the Baltic Sea Basin, and the Hornád drainage
basin (Tisa and Danube river system) belonging to the Black
Sea Basin (Fig. 2). The presence of remains of fluvial gravel
on  the  top  of  the  Kozie  Chrbty  Mts  implies  that  streams
(paleo-Hornád River and Vernársky potok Stream), originating
from  the  Nízke  Tatry  Mountains  flowed  across  the  structure
(Roth 1938; Lukniš 1973).

Research methods

Field geological research and drilling

The Quaternary deposits preserved in the deep seated sad-

dles of the Kozie Chrbty horst were mapped in the field us-
ing a 5 m contour interval topographic map at a scale of
1 : 10,000. This mapping was supported by the interpretation
of aerial ortho-photographs and DTM at a scale of 1 : 10,000,
with a cell size of 5 m. According to the results of the field

geological  research,  sites  for  drilling  were  selected.  A  drill
diameter  size  of  20 cm  was  used  to  recover  cores  that  are
suitable to be used for luminescence dating. Three boreholes
were drilled with drilling depths of 7 (V-1), 12 (V-2), and 22
meters  (V-3)  respectively.  The  cores  were  logged  with  re-
gard to their sedimentological properties.

Source maps, data and GIS applications

Radar data and 3D visualization were used for identification

and description of map-scale structures and for establishing a
terrain shape digital model. A DTM was derived from vector-
ized contours of topographic maps at a scale of 1 : 10,000 with
a cell size of 5 m. For a broader view, the DTM was based on
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) with spatial reso-
lution three-arc-second (Jarvis et al. 2008). Topographic, lon-
gitudinal, and transverse river valley profiles were also
constructed on these DTM based raster maps.

Information from geological maps at a scale of 1 : 50,000

(Biely  et  al.  1992;  Gross  et  al.  1999a;  Mello  et  al.  2000b)
and  1 : 200,000  (Polák  et  al.  2008;  Mello  et  al.  2008)  was
cross-checked  with  new  observations  in  the  most  relevant
parts of the study area.

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Elevation, slope and drainage network

The altitude, slope, and aspect were modelled and used for

morphometric analysis. These parameters were computed us-
ing  GRASS-GIS  software  (GRASS  Development  Team,
2010). The GRASS-GIS software calculates the orientation of
each  cell  of  the  DTM  using  regularized  spline  with  tension
method for approximation from vector data using the v.surf.rst
from vectorized contours of the maps at a scale of 1 : 10,000.
The module does not require input data with topology, there-
fore  both  level 1  (no  topology)  and  level 2  (with  topology)
vector point data are supported. Additional points are used for
approximation  between  each  two  points  on  a  line  if  the  dis-
tance between them is greater than specified dmax. If dmax is
small  (less  than  cell  size)  the  number  of  added  data  points
can be very large and slow down approximation significantly.
The implementation has a segmentation procedure based on
quad-trees which enhances the efficiency for large data sets
(GRASS Development Team 2010).

Morphometric parameters are computed directly from the ap-

proximation  function  so  that  the  important  relationships  be-
tween  these  parameters  are  preserved.  The  equations  for
computation of these parameters and their interpretation are ful-
ly  described  in  Mitášová  &  Mitáš  (1993)  and  Mitášová  &
Hofierka (1993). Slope angles are computed in degrees (0—90).

The derivation of the drainage basins was carried out by the

r.watershed module of the GRASS-GIS software by defining
the critical source area with the threshold using the parameters
of basin and half.basin (Kinner et al. 2005; GRASS Develop-
ment Team 2010). The selection of an adequate threshold was
crucial, because it defines the dimensions of the valleys to be
analysed. The threshold represents the minimum size of an ex-
terior watershed basin in cells when no flow map is available
for input, or overland flow units when there is a flow map. Ac-
cordingly, for the recognition of systematic drainage features
indicative of neotectonic deformation, a qualitative analysis of
the drainage pattern was also essential (Delcaillau 2001;
Schumm et al. 2002).

Mountain front sinuosity

The mountain front is especially defined by the value of the

change of slope inclination. The linearity of the mountain
front was quantified by a slightly reinterpreted S index (Bull &
McFadden 1977):

S = L

· L

—1

where L

is the total length of the considered segment of the

mountain front and L

is the length of abscissa between the

start and end points of the considered segment of mountain
front. The L

value reflects the real course of the fault system

on which the mountain front was developed. An S value ap-
proaching  1.0  indicates  a  very  linear  mountain  front  which
points towards young deformational activity along the fron-
tal  structures.  Higher  values  indicate  a  degraded  mountain
front, which results from tectonic inactivity (interconnected
with  weathering  conditions)  or  extremely  fast  weathering
processes. However, Bull & McFadden (1977) originally de-
veloped  the  S  index  for  straight  mountain  fronts.  As  tilted

and  rotated  blocks  of  various  volumes  are  common  in  the
Western  Carpathians,  this  produces  complex  fault  systems,
hence  not  straight  but  often  curved  patterns.  As  a  conse-
quence, the use of L

values in a traditional way may produce

incorrect results and we therefore experimented with tuning
the L

values. There are high prepositions, that the fault sys-

tem limits well preserved facets and underlying flat base sur-
faces. Therefore we used the idealized mountain front
defined by the flow-line, which delimits the lower facet’s L
edges (cf. Vojtko et al. 2011).

Normalized longitudinal valley profiles and stream gradient

Generally, a fluvial system reacts to tectonic influences by

changing  its  longitudinal  and  transverse  river  profiles,  its
channel  pattern,  and/or  its  sediment  discharge.  Longitudinal
and  transverse  river  profiles  were  constructed  based  on  the
DTM with cell sizes of 5 5 meters.

The longitudinal river profiles were analysed as most com-

monly practised (Hack 1973; Demoulin 1998; Wobus et al.
2006). Their quantified parameters are used to compare dif-
ferent drainage systems, and specifically, to identify the re-
sponse of neotectonic activities in the drainage basins. Data
were obtained from the DTM using the GRASS-GIS module
r.drain which traces a flow through a minimum grid value
path in a DTM.

Normalized longitudinal river profiles were applied to de-

scribe the geomorphic response of rivers in regions with ac-
tive  tectonics  (Zuchiewicz  1991,  1998;  Demoulin  1998;
Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. 2009). The advantage of these pro-
files is the direct comparison of valleys with different lengths
and  absolute  gradients  because  they  are  dimensionless
(Fig. 4). The abscissa is d/D, where D is the profile length and
d is the distance of the individual data points from the stream
source  at  one  end  of  the  profile.  The  ordinate  represents  the
normalized elevation to the absolute gradient along the valley
(e/E) where E is the absolute elevation (E = E

max

—E

min

) and e

is  the  elevation  of  individual  data  points  along  the  profile.
Normalized  profiles  characterize  the  degree  of  grading  of  a
river  where  z

max

is the maximal concavity, and d/D is the

normalized distance of z

max

from the source (Fig. 4). The area

on  the  plot  between  the  valley  profile  and  the  straight  line
connecting the source and the outlet of the valley is the con-
cavity  index    in  percent.  Theoretically,  this  index  lies  be-
tween  0.0  (0 %)  and  0.5  (100 %).  Higher  values  indicate  a
more concave profile, or a more highly graded river (Demoulin
1998; Molin et al. 2004; Ruszkiczay-Rüdiger et al. 2009).

The stream gradient (SG) was calculated for successive

100-m-long segments along the stream. The sensitivity of the
SG to changes in the channel slope makes it possible to evalu-
ate the relationships between tectonic activity, rock resistance,
and topography.

Luminescence dating

Luminescence allows the dating of the last daylight expo-

sure of quartz and feldspar grains using a latent light-sensitive
signal within the minerals that is erased during sediment trans-
port. During burial, when the grains are sealed from daylight,

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the latent luminescence signal is induced within the minerals
by the interaction of ionizing radiation with the crystal lattice.
Detailed reviews of the methodology have recently been pro-
vided by, for example, Wintle (2008) and Preusser et al.
(2008, 2009). For age calculation, two values have to be deter-
mined, the amount of radiation dose absorbed and stored as la-
tent luminescence signal by the mineral (D

) and the dose rate

(D), which means the amount of radiation dose per year.

For this study, material recovered by coring was transferred

to  the  luminescence  laboratories  in  Bern  and  the  outer  5 cm,
contaminated  during  the  coring  process  and  potentially  ex-
posed  to  daylight,  were  removed.  Sediment  from  the  inner
part  was  prepared  for  D

determination applying standard

chemical pre-treatments (HCl, H

, Na-oxalate) followed by

density separation (LST Fast Flow

with densities of

2.70 g · cm

—3

and 2.58 g · cm

—3

). The quartz fraction was etched

with 40% HF for one hour, rinsed with demineralized water,
and subsequently treated with HCl to remove fluorites. Small
aliquots (2 mm) were used for D

determination applying

modified  versions  of  the  Single-Aliquot  Regenerative  dose
(SAR) protocol (cf. Murray & Wintle 2000; Wintle & Murray
2006).  The  purity  of  quartz  separates  was  routinely  checked
by  exposure  to  IR  diodes  and  aliquots  showing  a significant
IR response were rejected from D

determination. D

was cal-

culated  using  Optically  Stimulated  Stimulated  (OSL)  from
quartz  (60 s stimulation  at  125 °C)  and  Infrared  Stimulated
Luminescence  (IRSL)  from  feldspar  (300 s stimulation  at
30 °C).  Preheating  at  230°  for  10  s (quartz)  and  290°  for
10 s (K-feldspar) prior to all luminescence measurements was
done  according  to  the  results  of  standard  performance  tests
(dose recovery, thermal transfer). No evidence for anomalous
fading in K-feldspar was observed in storage tests. The shape
of quartz OSL decay curves of samples VIF1 and VIF2 indi-
cates  strong  presences  of  medium  components  reported  to
cause  significant  age  shortfall  (Steffen  et  al.  2009).  For  the

lower part of the sequences, we interpret the IRSL ages as
probably reflecting the real deposition age of the samples and
the apparent OSL ages for this part are actually inconsistent
with stratigraphy and the rest of the dating results.

Dose rates were determined using low-level high-resolution

gamma spectrometry (cf. Preusser & Kasper 2001). Equilib-
rium of the decay chain of

238

U was investigated using the ap-

proaches described in Preusser & Degering (2007) and Zander
et al. (2007). While samples VIF1 and VIF2 are likely in equi-
librium, the other two samples show some weak evidence for
open system behaviour, namely a loss of

238

U in VIF3 and

a gain of

238

U in VIF4. However, this is regarded as having a

negligible effect on age determination.

Results

Geological and geomorphological survey

The Kozie Chrbty Mts are oriented in an E-W direction with

a length  of  more  than  20 km  and  a  width  ranging  from  1  to
5 km. Elevations (E) within the study area vary between 417
and  1259 m a.s.l.,  with  the  average  altitude  approximately
740 m a.s.l. The slope map enhances the general E-W oriented
geomorphic  features  such  as  the  Kozie  Chrbty  Mts  and  the
Hornád Basin (Fig. 5).

In the Vysová pass, a system of degradational terraces is

very well preserved (Fig. 6). The terrace system of the ancient
Hornád River is located on the eastern slopes of Kozí Kameň
Mount  and  the  western  slopes  of  the  Krížová  Mount  at  a
higher elevation than the Vysová pass. The older terraces than
the flattened surface of the Vysová pass are arranged into four
levels  with  preserved  gravel  remnants.  These  remnants  are
composed  predominantly  of  Upper  Permian  sandstones,  dia-
base,  basalt  pebbles  of  the  Hronic  Unit,  and  also  Paleogene
sandstones  of  the  Central  Carpathian  Paleogene  Basin.  The
younger terraces belong to the modern Hornád River alluvial
sediments on the Vysová pass. This terrace system is located
predominantly on the southern slope of the Kozie Chrbty Mts
horst  and  it  is  not  well-developed  due  to  high  basal  erosion
during and after the VIF activity.

Mountain front sinuosity

In context of the morphotectonic pattern, the VIF is repre-

sented  especially  by  contrast  relief’  landforms  (facet  slopes
vs. flat surfaces). This fault is also associated with the south-
ern  mountain  front  of  the  Kozie  Chrbty  horst.  The  S  index
reaches from 1.05 to 1.07 within the study area (Fig. 5). This
is close to the value of 1.0 which expresses the identity of the
low-destructed and real mountain front line. The fact that the
actual mountain front is low-destructed by exogenic processes
refers  to  a  considerable  role  of  very  young  tectonics  in  the
shaping of these contrast relief landforms.

Longitudinal valley profiles and stream gradients

Normalized longitudinal river profiles (Fig. 7) and their

concavity parameters were computed to identify vertical de-

Fig. 4. Normalized longitudinal river valley profiles. Further expla-
nation see in the text.

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Fig. 6. Map of the Pleistocene terrace system in the Vysová pass
neighbourhood with the location of the boreholes.

Table 1: Morphometric parameters of normalized longitudinal valley
profiles in the Kozie Chrbty horst. Explanations: Name – name of
analysed profiles, D – total distance from the source to confluence
with the Hornád or Poprad rivers, E – absolute gradient, Gr – rela-
tive gradient (E /D), z

max

– maximal concavity, d/D – distance of

max

from the source and – concavity index. Note, location of

streams is shown in Fig. 5.

formations and state of stream development affecting the
drainage network of the study area. Therefore, a total of nine
longitudinal river profiles were analysed and their location is
shown in Fig. 5. The maximum concavities (z

max

) are 0.10—

0.31 for the Stream  # 2 and Kvetnica S stream respectively,
and  their  positions  are  very  irregular  which  depends  on  the
type of valley and azimuthal orientation. The ratio  d/D was
computed from 0.22—0.82  for  the Stream  # 2  and  Vysová  S
stream respectively. The concavity index   varies from 6.52
for  the  Vysová  S  to  28.18  for  the  Vysová  N  streams.  The
analysed  streams  in  the  study  area  belong  to  the  Hornád
drainage basin except the Vysová N stream whith belongs to
the Poprad drainage basin (Fig. 2). These streams can be di-
vided into two groups based on computed  d / D, z

max

and

parameters from the normalized longitudinal river profiles
(Table 1).

The streams that flow from the Kozie Chrbty horst towards

the south are characterized by small concavity with vary-
ing from 6.52 to 24.79, and very variable d / D and z

max

pa-

rameters  (Table 1).  These  streams  also  have  complicated
shapes  on  the  graphs  of  the  longitudinal  river  profiles
(Fig. 7).  The  lower  parts  of  the  river  profiles  are  generally
concave  in  shape,  which  then  changes  increasingly  to  con-
vex towards the head of the stream. Finally, the upper parts
have also concave shape. The knick-points in the longitudi-
nal river profiles regularly appear approximately 150—250 m

upstream from the foothill and indicate young tectonic activ-
ity along the southern margin of the Kozie Chrbty horst
(Fig. 7). The lowermost and the uppermost courses are gen-
erally well-graded, unlike the middle parts of the streams,
which are evidently influenced by vertical movements of ter-
rain blocks along the VIF.

Stream gradients of valleys located on the southern side of

the Kozie Chrbty Mountains are more curved and reach val-
ues greater than  14 (Fig. 8). Interestingly, the stream gradi-
ent  curves  are  almost  identical.  The  maximum  stream
gradient  is  generally  located  150—250 m  from  the  southern
mountain front of the Kozie Chrbty horst. In contrast, the up-
per courses of the streams are characterized by low gradients
generally not exceeding 7.5.

The longitudinal river profile of the Kvetnica N is very

specific because the stream flows from the Kozie Chrbty
horst towards the north and then rapidly changes its flow di-
rection towards the east and south-east. The upper reach be-
longs to a paleo-stream and the central and lower parts of the
valley are evidently affected by river piracy which is record-
ed by its complicated shape (Figs. 7, 8).

The Vysová N stream is the second stream that flows to-

wards the north and can be characterized as a graded stream
with the highest = 28.18, quite high d / D and z

max

para-

meters (sensu Mackin 1948). This stream has a characteristic
concave upward profile and it was not influenced by active
faulting during the Quaternary Period. The ancient valley lo-
cated north of the Vysová pass is influenced by river capture
and at present it is characterized by a very low stream gradi-
ent which does not exceed a value of 7 (Fig. 8). The whole
upper  reach  of  this  valley  has  a  very  low  stream  gradient
(less than 5), but the lower part near the confluence with the
Poprad  River  is  already  affected  by  headward  erosion  after
reorganization of the river network (Lacika 1998). The main
valleys on the northern side of the mountain are affected by
lateral  erosion.  The  shape  of  the  valleys  is  more  open  than
the  previous  ones  and  the  valleys  are  significantly  filled  by
slope  sediments  derived  from  the  slopes  along  the  valleys.
The thickness of slope sediment reaches up to 13 m, as in the
Vysová pass (Fig. 8).

No.

Name

D [m] E [m] Gr [m/km] z

max

d/D

[%]

1 Kvetnica N 14773 204

13.82

0.28

0.42 28.12

2 Kvetnica S 1697 142

83.92

0.31

0.62 22.45

Stream 1 3521 334

94.83

0.16

0.50 20.32

Stream 2 2775 323

116.24

0.10

0.22 14.15

Stream 3 1035 39

37.31

0.24

0.74 24.79

Stream 4 1118 54

48.52

0.20

0.78 16.04

Stream 5 1327 102

76.77

0.17

0.31 17.38

Stream 6 1600 77

48.24

0.21

0.40 27.09

9 Vysová N 6296 76

12.00

0.23

0.35 28.18

Vysová S 1542 114

73.72

0.11

0.82 6.52

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Fig. 7. Normalized longitudinal river val-
ley profiles. The position of the Vikar-
tovce fault is indicated by arrows and
main knick-points by circle.

Fig. 8.  Stream  gradients.  The  abscissa  is
L–the  profile  length  in  meters  and  the
ordinate  represents  stream  gradient  (SG)
in  meters  for  successive  100-m-long  seg-
ments along the stream. The position of the
Vikartovce fault is indicated by arrows.

Age of the Vikartovce fault activity

According to our hypothesis, the

alluvial  sediments  which  were  pre-
served  in  the  Vysová  pass  can  date
the VIF tectonic activity. The fluvial
sediments  were  first  described  from
the  Poprad  brick-yard,  north  of  the
Kozie  Chrbty  Mts  (Lukniš  1973).
From  the  lithology  of  these  river
sediments its source area was in the
Nízke Tatry Mts, indicating a north-
bound  transport.  Recently  no  river
or stream of this course exists on the
northern  slope  of  the  horst  with  the
capacity  to  transport  the  described
alluvial  deposits.  This  is  an  impor-
tant argument to support the barrier/
tilting  model  described  above.  The
age  of  alluvial  sediments  deposited
by  the  former  river  probably  dates
the  age  of  river  interruption,  which
simultaneously slightly pre-dates the
age of the VIF Quaternary activity.

Due to recultivation, the old brick-

yard  disappeared  and  extensive  ur-
banization in the area of Poprad town
did not allow any surveys. However,
following  the  observations  by  Roth
(1938)  and  Lukniš  (1973),  we  ex-
pected alluvial sediments of a former
N—S  river  flowing  cross-cutting  the
Kozie  Chrbty  horst  at  the  presently
dry Vysová pass (Fig. 6).

Based on evidence from geological

field  investigation  and  geophysical
profiling,  three  shallow  boreholes
(V-1,  V-2,  and  V-3)  were  drilled  to
sample  the  alluvial  sediments.  The
third  borehole  (V-3)  was  used  for
sampling  (Fig. 6).  It  penetrated
brownish/yellowish

sandy

loam

(slope sediments) in the upper part of
the profile at a depth of 0.0—12.8 m
and a sequence of grey sands interca-
lated by clays and pebble clays at a

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

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depth of 12.8—17.2 m. The lower portion of the profile, under
alluvial deposits at a depth of 17.2—22 m, represents a strongly
weathered horizon of eluvial deposits (Fig. 9). This weathered
horizon comprises numerous bedrock clasts but the borehole
did not penetrate the bedrock itself.

Samples for OSL/IRSL dating were taken from the top of

the weathered horizon (VIF1: 18.2 m), the alluvial sediments
(VIF2: 15.7 m, VIF3: 13.2 m), and the lowermost part of over-
lying slope sediments (VIF4: 12.7 m). As stated above, the
OSL ages for the two lower samples are considered unreliable.

Fig. 9. The V-3 drill log with indications of sampling points, location and palynological analyses of alluvial horizon.

Table 2: Summary of luminescence data giving the grain size investigated, the number of replicate measurements for D

determination (n),

the concentration of dose rate relevant elements K, Th, and U (1 = as determined for

238

U from 186 keV line, 2 = mean of

214

Pb and

214

lines), W = water content used for dose rate calculation, sampling depth below present surface, dose rate (D) calculated using U (2), mean
D

, and resulting IRSL (feldspar) and OSL (quartz) age. * – Quartz OSL ages are significantly underestimated due to the presence of a

strong medium component in the signal.

The age for material from the weathered horizon, probably
representing input from slope processes, is dated to 167±11 ka
(IRSL). Ages for the alluvial sediments are (Table 2):
135 ± 14 ka (IRSL), 143 ± 9 ka (IRSL), and 114 ± 9 ka (OSL).

In addition to luminescence dating, palynological analyses

of the alluvial horizon were carried out. The sample was se-
lected from a thin (17 cm) intercalation of dark grey clay in-
side  the  alluvial  horizon  at  a  depth  of  14.5 m  (Fig. 9).  The
most  frequent  taxa  in  the  analysed  clay  horizon  represent
herbs  (Artemisia,  Asteraceae,  Chenopodiaceae)  and  a  small

Sample

Grain size

[µm]

n K

[%]

[ppm]

U (1)

[ppm]

U (2)

[ppm]

[%]

Depth

[m]

[Gy ka

–1

]

[Gy]

Age
[ka]

VIF4F

200–250

15 1.80 ± 0.07 4.76 ± 0.07 0.80 ± 0.33 1.08 ± 0.01 15 ± 5 12.5

2.82 ± 0.17 494.2 ± 9.0

175 ± 11

VIF4Q

200–250

15 1.80 ± 0.07 4.76 ± 0.07 0.80 ± 0.33 1.08 ± 0.01 15 ± 5 12.5

2.00 ± 0.16

255.0± 18.2 128 ± 13

VIF3F

200–250

15 1.60 ± 0.07 5.54 ± 0.26 1.81 ± 0.50 1.17 ± 0.06 15 ± 5 13.0

2.73 ± 0.18 369.2 ± 29.9 135 ± 14

VIF3Q

200–250

15 1.60 ± 0.07 5.54 ± 0.26 1.17 ± 0.06 1.17 ± 0.06 15 ± 5 13.0

1.90 ± 0.13 215.4 ± 5.5

114 ± 9

VIF2F

200–250

15 2.33 ± 0.09 7.37 ± 0.08 1.55 ± 0.46 1.57 ± 0.01 15 ± 5 16.7

3.50 ± 0.21 500.5 ± 10.4 143 ± 9

VIF2Q

200–250

3 2.33 ± 0.09 7.37 ± 0.08 1.57 ± 0.01 1.57 ± 0.01 15 ± 5 16.7

2.67 ± 0.18 184.1 ± 20.6

69 ± 9 *

VIF1F

200–250

15 1.99 ± 0.08 6.68 ± 0.24 1.32 ± 0.64 1.42 ± 0.05 15 ± 5 18.0

3.12 ± 0.14 524.6 ± 10.9 167 ± 11

VIF1Q

200–250

3 1.99 ± 0.08 6.68 ± 0.24 1.42 ± 0.05 1.42 ± 0.05 15 ± 5 18.0

2.31 ± 0.17 110.7 ± 26.5 48 ± 12 *

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proportion of Pinus and Betula is also recorded. This assem-
blage points towards an open landscape without forest (Lang
1994; Jankovská et al. 2002). The vegetation recorded in this
sediment, especially the presence of Betula nana, high val-
ues of Artemisia and Poaceae indicate rather cool climatic
conditions (Fig. 9).

Interpretation

The Vikartovce fault (VIF) is interpreted as normal fault

system with dipping of the fault plane southward. The total
slip  along  the  Vikartovce  fault  for  the  period  ca.  135 ka  to
present  is  approximately  given  by  the  difference  in  altitude
between the top of the Rissian deposits on the pass and the
Hornád  alluvial  plain.  It  is  estimated  to  105—135 m.  Please
note that this is only the vertical slip along the fault and that
the  horizontal  component  of  movement  is  currently  not
known.  Using  these  data,  the  average  movement  along  the
VIF  is  between  0.8  and  1.0 mm · yr

—1

. In the Western Car-

pathians, a velocity of vertical movements of approximately
1  mm  a  year  during  the  Quaternary  Period  was  also  con-
firmed  in  the  area  of  Turiec  Basin  (Kováč  et  al.  2011)  and
the  Horná  Nitra  Basin  (Vojtko  et  al.  2011)  based  on  sedi-
mentological  and  morphostructural  data.  Recent  faulting  is
attended by seismic activity recorded by historical and con-
temporary earthquakes in the study area (Cipciar et al. 2009).

The erosional rate for the last 135 ka was not estimated be-

cause of lack of any relevant data. Several small and at least
one  principal  knick-points  along  the  individual  longitudinal
river  profiles  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Kozie  Chrby  Mts
support  irregular  movement  along  the  VIF  fault.  This  im-
plies  that  the  active  movement  occurred  only  occasionally
and it was separated by periods of fault inactivity. Unfortu-
nately, there are no data available with regard to the frequency
of active faulting. However, some indications were observed
such  as  knick-points  on  longitudinal  river  valley  profiles.

The regular knick-points are distinct along the whole moun-
tain  boundary  and  they  are  interpreted  as  degraded  fault
scarps during the last higher tectonic activity (younger than
135 ka).  Generally,  the  computed  values  of  the  southern
streams imply active movement of the Vikartovce fault. De-
viations from the graded longitudinal river profiles are indic-
ative  of  external  influences,  especially  neotectonic  activity
as is expected here (Holbrook & Schumm 1999; Gelabert et
al. 2005).

The most likely mechanism for the horst origin was block

tilting, where the VIF operated as a boundary normal fault of
the tilted block (Kozie Chrbty horst). An argument supporting
this interpretation is the observed asymmetry of the horst,
which is typical of tilted blocks. The northern slopes of the
horst are low angle, while the southern slopes are steep, repre-
senting more or less the Vikartovce fault scarp. We expect that
the VIF itself is steeply dipping to the south as well.

The lower age limit for river redirection, and as a conse-

quence the maximum age of fault triggering, is given by these
ages. For the slope sediments, post-dating this event, the OSL
age of 128 ± 13 ka is consistent with the age estimates of the
alluvial sediments, while the IRSL age of 175 ± 11 ka is appar-
ently overestimated (Table 2).

In combination with the results from luminescence dating,

the deposition of the fluvial sediments is correlated to the tran-
sition from the Riss Glaciation towards the Last Interglacial
(Eemian), that is sometime around 135 ka (Figs. 9, 10). This
age most probably pre-dates the Pleistocene activity of the VIF.

Conclusions

The morphotectonic, geological, sedimentological, structur-

al, and geochronological evidence for the Quaternary activity
of the Vikartovce fault has been summarized here. The Kozie
Chrbty horst  has  a  distinct  morphological  asymmetry,  where
the southern slopes along the VIF are steep and the northern
slope  is  generally  flat  (Fig. 5).  The  normalized  longitudinal
profiles show principal knick-points on curves which are con-
sidered to be retreated fault scarps after the last higher move-
ment of the VIF. The knick-points are located approximately
150—250 m north of the present VIF trace (Fig. 7). Moreover,
the differences between stream gradient on the southern (high
gradient)  and  northern  (low  gradient)  valleys  of  the  Kozie
Chrbty horst is conspicuous (Fig. 8). This asymmetric pattern
is caused by VIF activity and block tilting.

The most expressive argument of the Vikartovce fault

Quaternary  activity  is  the  change  of  the  drainage  network
due to fault-related block separation. Fossil rivers originally
flowing  from  the  south  to  the  north  were  disrupted  by  the
Vikartovce  fault,  and  then  fault  controlled  tilting  created  a
barrier – an asymmetric horst, what led to the change in riv-
ers course from the S-N to W-E (Fig. 5). Luminescence dat-
ing  was  used  for  the  first  time  in  the  Slovak  Carpathians,
indicating  that  alluvial  sediments  deposited  by  the  fault-cut
fossil river have an age of around 135 ka (Table 2). It cate-
gorizes the Vikartovce fault to the youngest confirmed dislo-
cation in the Western Carpathians. During the late stages of
the Quaternary, the fault has been activated as a very dynam-

Fig. 10. IRSL age span of fossil river sediments and the related age of
the VIF activity triggering in comparison with climate curve (after
Gibbard & Cohen 2008) corresponding to the described palyno-taxa
assemblage (Fig. 9).

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 6, 563—574

ical structure, and it declares the Late Pleistocene fault sepa-
ration. The vertical separation along the fault for this stage
has been estimated as 105—135 m.

The speed of movement (computed only for vertical compo-

nent) along the Vikartovce fault ranges between 0.8 and
1.0 mm · yr

—1

, calculated as average speed which is equal to to-

tal distance covered divided by total time required. Anyway,
slip rates from 1 to 2 mm · yr

—1

might be considered average

for  major,  active  faults  (Yeats  et  al.  1997).  All  mentioned
properties of the VIF are typical for active faulting with seis-
mic  capability.  Figuring  out  the  rate  of  slip  along  faults  is  a
key to understanding the relative “importance” of faults in an
area,  and  the  geological  and  seismic  hazard  those  faults
present to local residents and developments.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Slovak
Research  and  Development  Agency  under  the  contract  No.
APVV-0158-06.  We  are  grateful  to  Dr.  Kamil  Ustaszewski
and Dr. Herfried Madritsch who inspired and encouraged us
to  carry  out  luminescence  dating  in  our  research.  We  also
thank  Dr.  Herfried  Madritsch,  Prof.  Klaus  Reicherter  and
Dr.  Jozef  Vozár  for  the  detailed  reviews  of  this  paper  and
constructive comments.

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