GeolCarp_Vol62_No4_361

www.geologicacarpathica.sk

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, AUGUST 2011, 62, 4, 361—379 doi: 10.2478/v10096-011-0027-6

Neogene and Quaternary development of the Turiec Basin and

landscape in its catchment: a tentative mass balance model

MICHAL KOVÁČ

, JOZEF HÓK

, JOZEF MINÁR

2,7

, RASTISLAV VOJTKO

, MIROSLAV BIELIK

3,8

RADOVAN PIPÍK

, MILOŠ RAKÚS

, JÁN KRÁ

, MARTIN ŠUJAN

and SILVIA KRÁLIKOVÁ

Department of Geology and Paleontology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Mlynská dolina G, 842 15 Bratislava,

Slovak Republic; kovacm@fns.uniba.sk

Department of Physical Geography and Geoecology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Mlynská dolina B1,

842 15 Bratislava, Slovak Republic

Department of Applied Geophysics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Mlynská dolina G, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovak Republic

Geological Institute, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Ďumbierska 1, 974 01 Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic

State Geological Institute of Dionýz Štúr, Mlynská dolina 1, 817 04 Bratislava, Slovak Republic

EQUIS Ltd., Račianska 57, 831 02 Bratislava, Slovak Republic

Department of Physical Geography and Geoecology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University in Ostrava, Chittussiho 10, 71000 Ostrava,

Czech Republic

Geophysical Institute of the Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dúbravská cesta 9, 845 28 Bratislava, Slovak Republic

(Manuscript received October 12, 2010; accepted in revised form March 17, 2011)

Abstract: The development of the Turiec Basin and landscape evolution in its catchment has been reconstructed by methods
of geological research (structural geology, sedimentology, paleoecology, and geochronological data) as well as by geophysics
and geomorphology. The basin and its surrounding mountains were a subject of a mass balance study during periods of
tectonic activity, accompanied by considerable altitudinal differentiation of relief and also during quiet periods, characterized
by a development of planation surfaces in the mountains. The coarse clastic alluvial fans deposited beneath the offshore pelitic
sediments document the rapid Middle Miocene uplift of mountains on the margin of the Turiec Basin. The Late Miocene fine-
grained sedimentation represents the main fill of this basin and its origin was associated with the formation of planation
surfaces in the surrounding mountains. The rapid uplift of the western and northern parts of the catchment area during the
latest Miocene and Early Pliocene times further generated the deposition of coarse-grained alluvial fans. The Late Pliocene
basin inversion, due to uplift of the whole Western Carpathians mountain chain, was associated with the formation of the
Early Quaternary pediment and ultimately with the formation of the Turiec river terrace systems.

Key words: Quaternary, Neogene, Western Carpathians, Turiec Basin, landforms development, basin analysis, mass balance.

Introduction

The Turiec Basin (TB) is located in the interior of the Central
Western Carpathians extending in the NNE—SSW direction. It
is  about  40 km  long  and  10 km  wide  (Fig. 1).  Its  northern
margin is formed by the Krivánska Malá Fatra Mts which is
predominantly composed of the Variscan crystalline basement
of the Tatric Unit. The western flank of the basin is part of the
Lúčanská Malá Fatra Mts and the eastern flank is in the Ve ká
Fatra  Mts.  Both  these  are  composed  of  Mesozoic  complexes
of  the  Fatric  or  Hronic  nappes  and  the  Variscan  crystalline
complex of the Tatric Unit. The Tatric crystalline basement of
the  Žiar  Mts  and  the  volcano-sedimentary  complex  of  the
Kremnické vrchy Mts restrict the basin to the south (Fig. 2).

The well-preserved outcrops, boreholes, and geophysical data

offered  a  unique  opportunity  to  study  the  development  of  this
basin  and  surrounding  mountains  in  relationship  to  tectonic
evolution. Climatic changes and tectonic pulses strongly influ-
enced landscape evolution, and this is clearly visible in the evo-
lution of landforms. Therefore, the concept of mass balance for
periods of tectonic activity and quiet periods of planation surface
development,  together  with  analysis  of  the  basin  sedimentary
record and structural history is presented in the following text.

Methods

To understand the geodynamic development of the TB and its

catchment,  all  existing  geological,  geophysical,  and  geomor-
phological data were used in conjunction with new research car-
ried  out  by  the  following  methods:  (1)  geological  and
geomorphological mapping, (2) sedimentology and paleoenvi-
ronmental study with sequence stratigraphy, facies, and pebble
analysis, and (3) biostratigraphy and paleoecology. Additional-
ly, (4) structural geology focused on fault slip analysis, paleo-
stress  reconstruction,  fission  track  thermochronology  data,
geophysical research, morphostructural analysis of tectonically
induced landforms, fault scarp and faceted slope analysis, anal-
ysis of the longitudinal profile of valleys, mountain front sinu-
osity, valley floor to valley height ratio, the valley cross-section
ratio  and  analysis  of  valley  textures,  and  (5)  remote  sensing
based on the analysis of aerial photo stereopairs and of Landsat
TM and Spot Panchromatic satellite scenes were also utilized.

The mass balance model of the TB catchment area was in-

terpreted  on  the  basis  of  the  relationship  between  accumula-
tion  and  denudation  and  on  landform  properties.  The
accumulation  was  computed  from  the  maximum  recorded  or
expected  thickness  of  sediments  within  a  chosen  time  span.

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 4, 361—379

Succinea,  Goniodiscus,  and  Vertigo)  but  this  changed  to a
hilly  landward  landscape  (Fagus  and  Carpinus)  covered  by
forest  (Pokorný  1954;  Němejc  1957;  Rakús  1958;  Sitár
1966, 1969; Ondrejičková 1974).

Paleoecological and morphological study of the TB ostra-

cods  distinguished  at  least  three  stratigraphical  associations
in the sedimentary fill (Fig. 4). The oldest, poorly diversified
assemblage  composed  of  Darwinula  stevensoni,  Candona,
Cypria,  Mediocypris  and  Leptocythere,  is  located  below  a
rhyolite tuff horizon of the Jastrabá Formation at a depth of
approximately  700 m  below  the  surface  and  comes  from

cores of ZGT-3 and BJ-2. This assemblage is regarded as
Sarmatian (late Langhian) and occurred in sediments of the
Middle Miocene initial rifting stage in a slightly haline lake
environment.

The second well-diversified Early to Middle Pannonian

association  appears  within  the  overlying  strata.  This  was
deposited during the basin synrift phase and it documents
a  change  of  the  water  environments  to  an  isolated  fresh-
water,  ecologically  and  bathymetrically  differentiated
lake.  This  is  indicated  by  the  large  number  of  endemics,
the  spatial  distribution  of  ostracods,  the  shapes  of  the

Fig. 4. Ostracod assemblages of the Turiec Basin evolutionary stages. 1—6 – Ostracods of the high stand of the lake water level; 1 – Candona
sitari Pipík & Bodergat, 2007; 2 – Candona clivosa Fuhrmann, 1991; 3 – Candona lacustris Pipík & Bodergat, 2006; 4 – Candona ossea
Pipík & Bodergat, 2007; 5 – Candona aculeata Pipík & Bodergat, 2007; 6 – Candona palustris Pipík & Bodergat, 2006. 7—10 – Ostracods
of the synrift stage; 7 – Candona nubila Pipík & Bodergat, 2007; 8 – Candona subaculeata Pipík & Bodergat, 2007; 9 – Candona stagnosa
Pipík & Bodergat, 2006; 10 – Candona simplaria Pipík & Bodergat, 2007. 11—13 – Ostracods of the basin initial rifting stage; 11 – Dar-
winula stevensoni (Brady & Robertson, 1870); 12 – Mediocypris sp. 1; fragment of the valve in external lateral view; 13 – Mediocypris
sp. 1; fragment of the valve in internal lateral view. Note, that taxa 2 and 11 have a large stratigraphical span and high ecological tolerance and
they can also be found in other stages of the Turiec Basin evolution.

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KOVÁČ, HÓK, MINÁR, VOJTKO, BIELIK, PIPÍK, RAKÚS, KRÁ , ŠUJAN and KRÁLIKOVÁ

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 4, 361—379

Candoninae, and the isotopic signatures of

Sr/

(Pipík et al. in print).

The third very rich ostracod association in the upper part

of the basin fill documents a long-term biogeographic isola-
tion and evolution of endemic fauna. Sediments here can be
regarded  as  deposits  from  high  stands  of  lake  water  levels
(Pipík & Bodergat 2006, 2007). By the end of this evolution-
ary  stage,  when  the  accommodation  space  of  lake  was  ex-
hausted,  the  lacustrine  environment  gradually  changed
during  the  Late  Pannonian—Pontian  to  an  environment  of
marsh, swamp, and alluvial plain.

Lithostratigraphy and depositional chronology

The TB fill is composed of the Turiec Group, previously

named the Turiec Formation (Hók et al. 1998). According to
recent knowledge concerning the origin and dating of individ-
ual formations and members, the constituents of this “Group”
underwent multiple changes (Rakús & Hók 2002). The last
most recent definition of the Turiec Group lithostratigraphy is
presented in Fig. 5.

The Upper Badenian Turček Formation represents a volca-

no-sedimentary  andesite  complex  reaching  the  southern  part
of  the  TB  from  the  Central  Slovak  Neovolcanic  Field
(Konečný  et  al.  1983;  Nemčok  &  Lexa  1990;  Lexa  et  al.
1998).  Here,  this  formation  developed  from  andesite  lava
flows,  tuffs,  and  tuffite  layers  deposited  above  the  Mesozoic
basement  and  clays  with  a  tuff  admixture  (Figs. 5,  6).  The
tuffs  and  tuffite  layers  reach  the  base  of  the  superimposed
Budiš Member (GHŠ-1 borehole, sensu Gašparik et al. 1974).

This Sarmatian—Lower Pannonian Budiš Member was rec-

ognized only at the southern edge of the TB (Figs. 5, 6, and 7)
and it represents sediments of dense gravity flows deposited in
an  alluvial  fan  environment.  Arkose  sandstone  derived  from
granitoid crystalline complexes of the Žiar Mts (Fig.  8) con-
tains layers of clay with coal, blocks, boulders of granitoids up
to several cubic meters in size, and also rocks of the Mesozoic
sedimentary cover (HGB-2 and HGB-3a boreholes; cf. Hav-
rila 1997). The blocks boulders and associated pebbles exhibit
more  complete  rounding  toward  the  basin.  The  matrix  is
clayey  and  composed  of  kaolinite  with  varying  content  of
sand  (Gašparik  et  al.  1991).  The  maximum  thickness  of  the
Budiš Member is more than 600 m and towards the north and
east, the Budiš Member intercalates with offshore clays of the
lower  part  of  the  Martin  Formation  (HGB-3  borehole;  Van-
drová et al. 1999; Pipík 2002) (Fig. 5).

The Middle to Upper Pannonian Abramová Member rep-

resents  deposits  of  alluvial  fans  on  the  south-western  mar-
gins  of  the  basin  (Figs. 5,  6,  and  7).  Coarse-grained
conglomerates/gravels  and  pebble  sandstones/pebble  sands
at  the  Abramová-Kolísky,  Ondrašová,  Moškovec,  and  So-
covce  sites  are  mainly  products  of  subaerial,  sporadically
subaquatic transport by gravitational flows over a short dis-
tance (Fig. 1). The conglomerates and pebble sandstones are
poorly  bedded,  with  both  normal  and  opposite  graded  beds
observable.  Layering  is  not  always  visible  and  the  bedding
planes  are  documented  only  on  the  contact  of  the  various
sandstone  and  conglomerate  grain  sizes.  Here,  the  pebbles
are  poorly  rounded  and  they  are  composed  exclusively  of

Fig.  5.  Lithostratigraphy  of  the  Turiec  Basin  infill  –  The  Turiec
Group;  important  dated  surfaces:  (D1)  boundary,  restricted  to  the
southern  part  of  basin,  represents  the  base  of  the  Middle  Miocene
sedimentary  record,  which  started  with  the  Turček  Formation
(Konečný et al. 1983; Nemčok & Lexa 1990; Lexa et al. 1998) base
of formation can be correlated with the base of the Late Badenian re-
gional stage (13.65 Ma, Kováč et al. 2007) or the Serravallian stage
(13.82 Ma, Gradstein et al. 2004); (D2) boundary represented by the
Budiš Member base dated to 12.7 Ma coeval with the base of the Sar-
matian  regional  stage  (Harzhauser  &  Piller  2004,  2007);  (D3)  level
represented by the rhyolite tuffs of the Jastrabá Formation, dated to
the Sarmatian/Pannonian boundary (Lexa et al. 1998). The base of
the  Pannonian  regional  stage  is  dated  to  11.6 Ma  (Vasiliev  et  al.
2005; Harzhauser & Piller 2007); (D4) approximate base of coarse
alluvial  fans  of  the  Abramová  and  Blážovce  Members  (Late  Mio-
cene—Late Pliocene) documenting the rapid uplift of the entire area
between 6—4 Ma; (D5) upper boundary of the Upper Miocene basin
fill marked by the Dubná skala Member dated to the latest Pannon-
ian—Pontian; (D6) surface dated above the 2.6 Ma level covered by
the Diviaky Formation and Podstráne Member. Note, the Central Para-
tethys chronostratigraphy is according to A) Rögl (1998) and Kováč
et al. (1998b) and B) Harzhauser & Mandic (2008).

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Triassic dolomite and limestone of the Hronic Unit, with the
grain  size  decreasing  from  the  foothills  towards  the  basin
(Figs. 4, 8). This poorly lithified member attains a maximum
thickness  of  about  400 m.  Although  the  Abramová  Member
alluvial fans mostly cover the pre-Neogene basement or over-
lie the pelitic basin fill, in some places they partly intercalate
with  clays  of  the  Martin  Formation  (Fig. 5).  The  age  of  this
member is determined by a presence of the Upper Pannonian
Candona  aculeata-armata-stagnosa-nubila-simplaria  assem-
blage and Candona eminens-laterisimilis assemblage found at
the Socovce and Abramová-Kolísky sites (Fig. 4).

The occurrence of the rhyolite tuffite is quite surprising at

the Abramová-Kolísky site (Fig. 8), since it cannot be com-
pared with the rhyolite tuffs of the Jastrabá Formation, drilled
in the GHŠ-1 borehole at a depth 550—551.5 m in fine-grained
basinal facies (Gašparik et al. 1974). The problem is their age,
because the Jastrabá Formation is dated to the Sarmatian/Pan-

Fig. 6. Schematic cross-sections in the northern (A), central (B) and
southern  parts  (C)  of  the  Turiec  Basin  (location  of  cross-sections
see Fig. 3). Identification of various sedimentary bodies participat-
ing  in  the  basin  architecture  is  supported  by  geological  mapping,
borehole  study  and  by  the  results  of  vertical  electrical  sounding
(VES) (Bielik et al. 2009).

nonian boundary (Konečný et al. 1983; Gašparik et al. 1995;
Lexa et al. 1998) and the surface outcrops considered here are
assigned to the Late Pannonian (Pipík & Bodergat 2006,
2007). Therefore, this rhyolite tuffite is regarded as redeposit-
ed rhyolite tuff derived later, eroded from a currently non-ex-
istent younger part of the Jastrabá Formation located in the
Central Slovak Neovolcanic Field.

The Upper Pannonian—Pontian Blážovce Member repre-

sents  deposits  of  alluvial  fans  on  the  western  margin  of  the
basin, along the western foothill of the Lúčanská Malá Fatra
Mts (Figs. 5, 6, and 7). The proximal parts of the fans were
deposited in subaerial conditions, while the distal parts often
bear  signs  of  deposition  in  a  lacustrine  environment.  These
Blážovce  Member  alluvial  fans  overlie  the  alluvial  fans  of
the Abramová Member (Fig. 9).

The proximal part of the alluvial fans deposits contains a

sedimentary succession at the Slovany and Valča sites, con-
sisting  of  boulders,  breccias,  and  conglomerates  with  sand-
stone intercalations (Fig. 9). The size of these boulders and
pebbles decreases from the mountains towards the basin and
the  sediments  are  mostly  products  of  subaerial  and  partly
subaquatic  transport  by  gravitational  flow  over  a  short  dis-
tance.  The  conglomerates  vary  from  matrix  supported  con-
glomerates  to  pebble  supported  conglomerates.  Layering  is
not always visible, and the bedding planes were often docu-
mented by contact with varying sizes of sandstone/conglom-
erate grains. The conglomerates are poorly sorted with a lot
of subangular clasts and the pebble material is derived from
Triassic  dolomite  and  limestone  of  the  Hronic  Unit.  The
sandy-clayey  matrix  of  ochre-brown  colour  contains  quartz,
calcite,  dolomite,  illite,  and  montmorillonite  (Gašparik
1989),  and  the  conglomerates’  internal  structure  is  mostly
chaotic,  showing  imbrications  with  inclination  towards  the
west in a few places. The thickness of the member at the ba-
sin  margin  is  about  350—400 m.  Some  lobes  of  the  Slovany
and Valča alluvial fans are partly intercalated into the Upper
Pannonian basinal clays of the Martin Formation (KM-1 bore-
hole  and  Stráža  site  near  Socovce  village),  and  the  beds  are
generally inclined towards the west-northwest (17—25°).

The Blážovce site represents a distal part of the Blážovce

Member  alluvial  fans,  at  which  layering  of  conglomerates
and sandstones is much better developed compared to previ-
ous  sites.  Sand  and  silt  layers  have  thicknesses  from  0.5  to
2 m  at  this  site  (Fig.  9).  At  the  outcrops,  cross  and  trough
beddings are present in some places which documents depo-
sition in an aquatic environment with an impact of fluvial or
lake  hydrodynamics.  The  age  of  the  Blážovce  Member  can
be determined only indirectly using the Late Pannonian age
of the underlying Abramová Member and the Late Pannon-
ian—Pontian age of the Martin Formation which was deposit-
ed in the axial part of the basin.

The sedimentary succession of the Pliocene Bystrička

Member represents the youngest deposits of an alluvial fan situ-
ated on the north-western margin of the basin (Figs. 5, 6, and 7).
Coarse clastics with signs of gravity flow transport have varie-
gated  petrographical  composition  containing  pebbles  of  Me-
sozoic  dolomite,  dolomitic  limestone,  cherty  limestone,
Allgäu  Formation,  radiolarite,  and  grey-marly  limestone  as
well  as  rocks  of  crystalline  complexes.  Pebbles,  cobbles,

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pattern changes in the basin catchment are well expressed by
paleostress field rotation (Kováč et al. 1998a; Hók et al. 1998;
Pešková et al. 2009; Vojtko et al. 2010) and they have also
been verified by our measurements of small-scale tectonic
structures (Fig. 10).

Basin pre-rifting and initial rifting stage

The Oligocene tectonics in the Western Carpathians can be

characterized  by  a  strike-slip  tectonic  regime  with  W—E  ori-
ented compression (Pešková et al. 2009; Vojtko et al. 2010).
The  Lower  Miocene  paleostress  field  with  WNW—ESE  to
NW—SE  oriented  compressional  axis  (

) generated tectonic

structures which had no effect on the opening and formation
of  the  present  TB.  Although  the  Middle  Miocene  structural
pattern seems similar to the Early Miocene, the principal pa-
leostress  axes  rotated  approximately  30—40°  clockwise  and
the  dominant  tensional  axis

originated in the ENE—WSW

direction (Kováč et al. 1989; Hók et al. 1998; Kováč 2000;
Pešková et al. 2009; Vojtko et al. 2010).

The Late Badenian transtensional to extensional tectonic re-

gime led to subsidence in the southern part of the TB. The vol-
canic  products  of  the  Central  Slovak  Neovolcanic  Field
reached  the  southern  part  of  basin,  where  the  volcano-sedi-
mentary  complex  of  the  Turček  Formation  was  deposited  as
witnessed  in  the  GHŠ-1  borehole  (Gašparik  et  al.  1974)  and
later, also the Sarmatian sediments of the Martin Formation.

Restricted occurrences of the Sarmatian coarse clastic sedi-

ments in the southern part of the basin (Budiš Member), and
the distribution of sedimentary facies and products of rhyolite
volcanism in the Jastrabá Formation led to our assumption
that these were deposited in a separate basin depocentre which
was opened along the NW—SE to NNW—SSE oriented normal
faults and along the ENE—WSW dextral strike-slip faults pres-
ently covered by Upper Miocene strata. In the northern part of
basin, pelitic fine-grained sediments with Darwinula stevenso-
ni, Candona, Cypria, Mediocypris, Leptocythere (BJ-2, ZGT-3
boreholes; Pipík 2001) were deposited at the same time.

Basin synrift stage

At the commencement of the Late Miocene, the paleostress

field began to change through clockwise rotation of the princi-
pal compression axis

from the NNW—SSE to a NNE—SSW

direction (Hók et al. 1998). The measured structures in Fig. 10
support  the  model  of  a  dextral  transtensional  to  extensional
tectonic regime (Kováč & Hók 1993). This same paleostress
field was also computed in the western and northern parts of
the Central Western Carpathians during this period (Kováč et
al.  1994;  Kováč  2000;  Pešková  et  al.  2009;  Vojtko  et  al.
2010). This model also conforms to knowledge of the mantle
diapirism  and  volcanic  activity  in  the  neighbouring  Central
Slovak Neovolcanic Field (Nemčok & Lexa 1990).

The Pannonian subsidence of the TB is well-documented by

the facies development of the Martin Formation deposited in a
basin restricted by uplifted mountains. The area along the ba-
sin axis was mostly filled with pelitic lacustrine sediments,
and clays intercalated with bodies of freshwater limestones
and coal seams towards its margins.

In the southern part of the basin, the clay contains volcanic

products,  especially  fine-grained  tuff  and  tuffite  from  the
Jastrabá Formation dated to the Sarmatian/Pannonian bound-
ary (Lexa et al. 1998). These were recognized on the surface
from  the  south-eastern  margin  of  the  basin  near  Mošovce,
Blatnica, and Necpaly villages (Březina 1957; Gašparik et al.
1995)  and  from  boreholes  as  several  decimeter  thick  layers
in the Martin Formation (Figs. 5, 6). The youngest deposits
of the basin fill are composed of light grey, and sometimes
light  green  or  blue  calcareous  clay  and  silt  with  varying
sandy admixtures (Gašparik et al. 1995). They contain a coal
pigment,  plant  remnants,  and  mollusc  shells  of  Congeria,
Melanopsis, Theodoxus, Pyrgula, Hydrobia, Kosovia and lit-
toral ostracods.

Freshwater limestone of grey to brown pale colour con-

tained  various  clay  and  sandy  admixtures.  The  limestone
layering is occasionally well-developed, or it is massive. The
beds are 0.5 to 7 m thick and contains abundant marshy and
littoral lake fauna (Pipík et al. in print). Freshwater limestone
bodies  and  travertine  are  products  of  thermal  water  springs
with  a  high  amount  of  calcium  carbonate  which  rose  to  the
surface along the NNE—SSW border faults of the Turiec Ba-
sin.  According  to  the  BJ-2,  GT-13  and  GT-14  boreholes  in
the  central  part  of  the  basin,  the  freshwater  limestones  are
lacking there.

The Dubná skala Member represents the largest body of the

freshwater limestone with thickness up to 150 m (Figs. 5, 9),
composed  of  limestone,  travertine,  clay,  and  sandy  clay.
Several  thin  and  small  carbonate  conglomerate  lenses  and
layers  with  a  maximum  thickness  of  2 m  are  present  in  the
clays  and  these  consist  exclusively  of  dolomite  and  lime-
stone  pebbles  with  a  matrix  of  clays  and  freshwater  lime-
stone.  The  limestone  is  rich  in  Charophyta  thallus,  the
remains  of  Typha  sp.  (water  plants)  and  also  Glyptostrobus
sp.  typical  of  marshy  biotopes.  Terrestrial  gastropods  Heli-
cidae, Pomatisidae, Strobilopsidae indicate proximity of the
terrestrial environment lacustrine to freshwater lake (aquatic
gastropods Lymnaeidae).

Lignite seams with thickness from tens of centimeters to

1.5 m are located in varying depths of the Martin Formation
sequence (Gašparik et al. 1995) (Fig. 5), mainly in its northern
part. These lignite seams are characterized by low maturity
and calorific capacity, and by fossil woods in the growth posi-
tion with trunks, roots and a well-preserved xylem structure.

Micro-conglomerates consisting of fine- to medium-grained

conglomerate bodies inside the Martin Formation are present
as clays with decimeter to several meters of thickness. Pebbles
are composed of carbonate rocks and the matrix is composed
of sandy clays and sands. These are situated in various parts of
the sedimentary record from the base to the top.

Miocene to Quaternary tectonic evolution

The Turiec Basin has been described as a halfgraben of a

basin and range structure (Nemčok & Lexa 1990). Neverthe-
less, analysis of structural data shows that its tectonic history
documents compressional tectonic pulses alternating with pe-
riods of extension. The Neogene and Quaternary structural

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tain  front,  and  it  strongly  delimits  massive  landforms  such  as
faceted  slopes  and  flattened  surfaces.  The  S  index  of  Bull  &
McFadden (1977) attains the value of 1.20—1.25 for the eastern
front line of the Lúčanská Malá Fatra Mts and its low value doc-
uments a predominance of tectonic processes over denudation.
The fact that the mountain front was not destroyed intensively
by exogenic processes strengthens the hypothesis of active tec-
tonics during the Quaternary Period. Therefore, these tectonics
played  a  considerable  role  in  the  shaping  of  the  contrasting
landforms,  despite  the  highly  active  weathering  and  denuda-
tional processes in the Western Carpathians during the neotec-
tonic period (Vojtko et al. 2011).

Although several faceted slopes along the Hradište fault

zone  are  predominantly  denuded,  the  faceted  slopes  in  the
northern part of the fault trace are well-preserved where the ra-
tio of the mountain front faceting is approximately 0.80—0.85
(cf. Wells et al. 1988) (Fig. 11). Facets of the Lúčanská Malá
Fatra  Mts  front  average  200—300 m  in  height,  with  the  most
distinctive facets along the northern boundary of the TB with
the Kriváňska Malá Fatra Mts at heights of 400—500 m. These
landforms are possibly a consequence of the distinctive young
Quaternary uplift of the Kriváňska Malá Fatra Mts. Facets of
the  Ve ká  Fatra  Mts  are  only  100—200 m  high,  and  they  are
completely  absent  in  a  large  part  of  the  northern  foothill.  A
similar situation is found in the foothills of the Žiar Mts and
this  signifies  a  decelerated  and  only  slight  tectonic  uplift  of
these mountains during the Quaternary Period.

A remarkable mosaic of landforms has been discovered at

the front of the faceted slope line with many alluvial fans of
different areal extent and volume. The Pliocene to Holocene
alluvial fans were deposited by gravity flows and stream sed-
imentation  and  their  presence  on  the  eastern  part  of  the
mountain front line is a result of sudden change in slope in-
clination.  They  are  composed  of  sandy-gravel  material  de-
rived  from  the  small  valleys  carved  into  the  faceted  slopes
(Fig. 11). Some regularity can be detected in the distribution
of the Quaternary alluvial fans and river terraces, where the

ment area which led to inversion of the basin, or was coeval
with it.

During the Late Pliocene or at the Pliocene/Pleistocene

boundary, the orientation of the principal paleostress axes un-
derwent a final change, and the paleostress tensor was charac-
terized by a NW—SE oriented compression and perpendicular
tension.  This  change  was  observed  in  the  entire  western  and
northern  regions  of  the  Central  Western  Carpathians  and  it
significantly  influenced  the  evolution  of  the  broader  area
(Vojtko et al. 2008; Králiková et al. 2010). The basin synrift
subsidence  along  the  NNE—SSW  trending  normal  to  oblique
slip  faults  at  the  western  margin  of  TB  was  substituted  by
NNE—SSW transtensional sinistral oblique slips and NW—SE
trending normal faults (Hók et al. 1998).

A rapid uplift of the crystalline basement of the Lúčanská

and Krivánska Malá Fatra Mts caused conspicuous altitudinal
differentiation  especially  in  the  north-western  part  of  the  TB
along the NNE—SSW sinistral oblique-slip faults. Erosion and
transport  of  coarse  clastics  are  documented  by  the  Late
Pliocene Bystrička Member and the Pleistocene alluvial fans
of  the  Podstráne  Member  containing  exclusively  material
from the Tatric crystalline complex (Figs. 6, 7). The NW—SE
normal faults were active during the Pliocene and Quaternary
periods. This is shown by the Rakša fault limiting the northern
boundary of the Pleistocene Diviaky Member by the Blatnica
and  Valča  faults  restricting  outcrops  of  the  Paleogene  sedi-
ments at the surface in the eastern part of the basin and by the
Sučany fault which represents the outer boundary of the Late
Miocene fill of the TB (Fig. 10).

Morphotectonic markers

The youngest tectonic stages are well-reflected in the mor-

photectonic markers, especially in foothill lines which are quite
obvious on satellite images in visible, infrared and radar wave-
length spectra, and also in digital terrain models (Fig. 11). The
NNE—SSW striking of the Hradište fault zone copies the moun-

Fig. 11. Visualized digital terrain model of the
northern part of the Turiec Basin and adjacent
mountains with the slope angles in degrees.

older landforms dominate
in the south and the young-
er ones in the north.

Knickpoints in river lon-

gitudinal profiles mainly in
the  foothills  of  the  Malá
Fatra  Mts  indicate  recent
tectonic  activity  (Sládek
2010).  Other  knickpoints
regularly  appearing  about
1.5—2 km upstream may re-
flect  an  older  Quaternary
tectonic  event,  although
such  regularity  is  less  dis-
tinct  in  other  mountain
boundaries. Quaternary tec-
tonic  activity  is  also  most
likely  a  cause  of  block
landslides  in  some  parts  of
the  boundary  between  the
mountains  and  the  TB
(Sládek 2010).

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The ‘Mid-mountain level’ is an initial planation surface and

has the characteristics of a pediplain (Mazúr 1963), etchplain
(Lacika 1995) or tectoplain (Minár 2003). The surface severed
the  Sarmatian  volcanites  in  the  highest  central  part  of  the
Kremnické  vrchy  Mts.  The  remnants  of  this  highest  surface
are assumed to range from approximately 1500 m a.s.l., in the
Malá  and  Ve ká  Fatra  Mts  to  only  700 m  a.s.l.  in  the  Žiar
Mts (Lukniš 1962). This indicates considerable tectonic dif-
ferentiation  of  the  territory  after  formation  of  this  level
which  can  be  correlated  with  deposition  of  the  fine-grained
Martin  Formation  during  a  tectonically  quiet  period  of  the
Pannonian regional stage (sensu Harzhauser & Piller 2007).
A decrease in fault activity during this period most likely al-
lowed an acceleration of the regional planation (Minár 2003;
Minár et al. 2011).

According to Lukniš (1962) and Mazúr, (1963), the ‘River

level’ has the character of a pediment mainly located from 40
to 100 m above the actual Turiec and Váh Rivers. The ‘River
level’  position  approximately  above  the  highest  Pleistocene
river  terraces  (Early  Pleistocene  on  the  north  and  Middle
Pleistocene  on  the  south,  Činčura  1969)  defines  its  age  as
Early to Middle Pleistocene. A local stepped character of the
level  implies  a  younger  indistinct  structural  differentiation.
However,  indication  of  two  all-aged  pediments  also  exist
(Minár  &  Bizubová  1994;  Sládek  &  Bizubová  2008).  The
extreme height of the ‘River level‘ of about 300 m above the
Váh River in the Strečno Gorge of the Malá Fatra Mts dem-
onstrates rapid Quaternary uplift of the mountain.

River terraces

A system of Quaternary river terraces and terraced alluvial

cones developed in the basin (Mazúr 1963; Činčura 1969;
Gašparik et al. 1995). The radiometric dating is unavailable
but position, gravel weathering, and heavy hypersthene min-
eral characteristics enable us to distinguish between three
major groups of river terraces.

The high terraces from the Early to Middle Pleistocene are

45—90 m above the Turiec and Váh Rivers and they are pre-
served only as small and eroded remnants on the foothills of
the basin. Their maximum accumulated thickness normally at-
tains 2—3 meters. These relatively high terraces decline about
15—30 m from the northern to the southern parts of the basin.
This may be a consequence of a different Quaternary tectonic
regime, together with a time lag in rejuvenation of the basin
drainage system to the south. The highest terraces in the ad-
jacent Váh Strečno Gorge are 130 m above the Váh River,
which indicates some dozen meters of Quaternary tectonic dif-
ferentiation between the basin and the surrounding mountains.

The Middle terraces of the Middle Pleistocene are 10—30 m

above  the  Turiec  and  Váh  Rivers,  and  these  are  the  most
widespread in the basin. The northern and southern parts of
the  basin differ in the number and character of terrace steps.
There are two steps in the north and three in the south. While
the top 25—30 m level in the northern TB is attributed to the
older Riss ( ~ Saalian) glaciation, the same level in the south-
ern part of basin is assigned to the Mindel ( ~ Elsterian) glaci-
ation  (Činčura  1969).  The  Quaternary  subsidence  and
normal stratigraphic sequence of the fluvial sediments in the

central southern part of the TB up to Elsterian, or to the older
Saalian in the southernmost part, may supply an explanation
(Minár  &  Bizubová  1994).  This  would  also  support  the
mixed  Elsterian—Saalian  character  of  the  pebble  material  of
terraces  situated  in  the  southern  part  of  the  basin  and  also
their  exceptional  thickness  exceeding  20 m  (Činčura  1966;
Minár & Bizubová 1994).

The low terraces of the Late Pleistocene—Holocene are 3—8 m

above the Turiec and Váh Rivers. They have a maximum allu-
vial  deposit  thickness  of  approximately  15 m  and  they  pre-
dominantly  occur  in  the  northern  part  of  the  TB.  The  Late
Pleistocene pebble material of these terraces is mostly buried
by Holocene alluvial sediments in the south, which again sup-
ports  a  minimal  recent  tectonic  uplift  of  the  central  southern
part of the basin.

The higher Middle terraces and part of the High terraces

are covered by a fine-grained material of several meters in
thickness and undetermined lithological origin. This is most
likely loessial loam or wash loam (Činčura 1969; Gašparik et
al. 1995).

Mass balance approach model

Some accurately datable milestones in the geological histo-

ry of the Western Carpathians are used for reconstruction of
the period boundaries and they are applied in the hypothetical
mass balance model of the development of the TB and its
catchment area (Table 1). Summarized data on erosion trans-
port and deposition were harmonized to the presented scenari-
os, but the results should not be overestimated because of the
insufficiency of some used input information.

Oligocene to Early Miocene epoch of uplift and rapid

cooling of the crystalline basement associated with denuda-
tion before reaching surface conditions (33—22 Ma)

This epoch is defined by using AFT ages and thermal mod-

elling of the Žiar Mts (Danišík et al. 2008) and by AFT ages
known  from  the  Ve ká  Fatra  Mts  (Danišík  et  al.  2010).  This
presumes  a  similar  tectonic  paleogeographic  situation  on  the
whole  area  of  the  TB  and  its  surroundings  before  the  basin
opening  during  the  Middle  and  Late  Miocene.  This  work,  in
contrast,  assumes  that  the  whole  catchment  suffered  much
more  intensive  denudation  in  the  south  and  west  than  in  the
north and east. This is supported by recently preserved Paleo-
gene sediments occurring only in the northern part of the ba-
sin,  and  also  by  the  SW—NE  increase  in  Paleogene  sediment
thickness in the broader region (Fig. 2).

Early Miocene epoch of subsidence, burial of the pre-

Neogene basement and development of planation surfaces
(22—16 Ma)

During this time span it is presumed that the TB catchment

was flooded by the Central Paratethys Sea and a thick pile of
Lower Miocene strata was deposited. Currently, this is docu-
mented by the denudation remnants of the Eggenburgian
transgressive Rakša Formation in the southern part of the basin

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 4, 361—379

(Gašparik  1989)  and  also  by  the  presence  of  Lower  Miocene
sediments  in  the  neighbouring  Bánovce  and  Horná  Nitra  Ba-
sins, where the sedimentary fill is more than 1500 m thick. AFT
thermal modelling from the Variscan basement of the Žiar Mts
also records an Early—Middle Miocene thermal event (Danišík
et al. 2008). A possible interpretation is influence of the burial
by  Lower  Miocene  sediments  at  1000—1500 m  during  its  first
phase (19—16 Ma). Observed surface planation in the surround-
ing  mountains  is  documented  by  buried  “planation”  surfaces
below the Badenian volcanites in the Kremnické vrchy Mts.

Middle Miocene epoch of uplift of crystalline complexes

associated with denudation (16—13 Ma)

Erosion of the Lower Miocene strata began after the vast sea

level fall at the beginning of the Middle Miocene (Haq et al.
1988; Haq 1991). The rapid denudation in the mass balance
model (300—400 mm/kyr

—1

) correlates with assumed erosion

of a huge pile of soft sediments (clay and silts of the “Lower
Miocene schlier formations”). AFT modelling in the Žiar Mts
shows decreased warming (Danišík et al. 2008) despite a peak
of  volcanic  activity  in  the  Central  Slovak  Volcanic  Field
(Konečný et al. 2002). We presume an elimination of the vol-
canic  heating  effect  due  to  the  rapid  uplift  and  denudation.
The  younger  AFT  age  of  the  Malá  Fatra  Mts  in  comparison
with  the  Ve ká  Fatra  Mts  underlies  the  earlier  and  stronger
denudation of the Malá Fatra Mts, while accumulation in the
Kremnické vrchy Mts is derived from assessment of the volca-
nic deposition.

Late Middle and early Late Miocene epoch of rapid uplift

and cooling of the crystalline basement associated with
basin subsidence (13—11 Ma)

Subsidence of the southern part of the TB was associated

with a rapid uplift of the Žiar Mts and neighbouring part of

the Malá Fatra Mts (see the thermal modelling in Krá et al.
2007; Danišík et al. 2008). Rapid erosion and subsidence of
the basin’s southern depocentre is documented by the pres-
ence of the huge alluvial fans of the Budiš Member (Figs. 5,
6, and 7). Based on distribution of the AFT ages in the wider
region, we propose a gradient of tectonic uplift, conditioned
by collision of the ALCAPA with the European Platform, to-
wards the Pieniny Klippen Belt (Kováč et al. 1994; Minár et
al. 2011). This conditioned both a higher denudation rate in
the Žiar and Malá Fatra Mts and also an inverse denudation
regime in the northern part of the TB.

Late Miocene epoch of subsidence, burial of the pre-Neogene

basement and development of planation surfaces (11—6 Ma)

The subsidence of the TB was associated with the accumula-

tion of clayey fill in the Martin Formation and the develop-
ment of planation surfaces which are actually preserved in the
central parts of all the surrounding mountains (Figs. 5, 12:
‘Mid-mountain level’). The results of AFT thermal modelling
confirm thermal stability in the Malá Fatra Mts (Danišík et al.
2010) and also most likely in the Žiar Mts (Danišík et al. 2008).

Latest Late Miocene to Early Pliocene epoch of rapid

uplift (6—4 Ma)

An accelerated uplift and erosion of the Malá Fatra Mts is

documented  by  the  presence  of  coarse-grained  alluvial  fans
of the Abramová and Blážovce Members which contain ex-
clusively pebbles of Mesozoic rocks. The fans on the west-
ern  margin  of  the  basin  are  partially  coeval,  but  mostly
overlay  with  fine-grained  basin  sediments,  mostly  clays,
freshwater  limestone,  and  coal  seams  of  the  Martin  Forma-
tion  (Figs. 5,  6,  and  7).  The  best  preservation  of  the  ‘Mid-
mountain  level’  in  the  Žiar  and  Kremnické  vrchy  Mts
indicates the low relief denudation of both.

Table 1: Comprehensive mass-balance model of the Turiec Basin region development. T [km] – total denudation (—) or accumulation (+)
effect estimation, D/A [mm/kyr

—1

] – denudation (—) and accumulation (+) rate, R [km] – mean relief. Planation periods are highlighted.

The Northern (N) and Southern (S) subregions are distinguished for the Turiec Basin and Malá Fatra units.

Turiec Basin (S)

Kremnické vrchy Mts

iar Mts

Age [Ma]

D/A

R T D/A

33–22 –3.5 –318

1.1 –3.2 –291

1.0 –3.5 –318

1.1

22–16

+1.3

+217

0.0

+0.2

+33

0.1

+1.5

+245

0.0

16–13 –1.2 –400

1.4 +1.5 +500

1.5 –0.8 –266

0.9

13–11 +0.5 +250

0.0 –0.1 –50

0.1 –0.5 –250

0.8

11–6

+0.7

+140

0.0

–0.1

–20

–0.4

–80

0.2

6–4 +0.3

+150

0.0 –0.2 –100

0.2 –0.3 –150

0.4

4–2 –0.1 –50

0.1 –0.4 –200

0.6 –0.3 –150

0.4

2–1

+0.1

+100

0.0

–0.2

–200

0.6

–0.1

–100

0.2

1–0 –0.05 –50

0.1 –0.25 –250

0.8 –0.2 –200

0.6

Turiec Basin (N)

Malá Fatra (S)

Malá Fatra (N)

Veľká Fatra

Age [Ma]

D/A

R T D/A

33–22 –2.9 –264

0.9 –3.2 –291

1.0 –3.5 –318

1.1 –1.5 –136

0.3

22–16

+1.0

+165

–0.8

–133

0.4

–1.0

–166

0.4

–0.2

–33

0.1

16–13 –1.0 –333

1.2 –1.3 –433

1.5 –1.5 –500

1.6 –0.4 –133

0.3

13–11 –0.2 –66

0.1 –0.8 –400

1.4 –0.8 –400

1.4 –0.2 –100

0.2

11–6

+1.0

+200

–0.8

–160

0.4

–1.0

–200

0.6

–0.3

–60

0.1

6–4 +0.1 +50

0 –0.6

–300

1.1 –0.6 –300

1.1

4–2 –0.2 –100

0.2 –0.6 –300

1.1 –0.8 –400

1.4 –0.6 –300

1.1

2–1

–0.25

–250

0.8

–0.3

–300

1.1

–0.25

–250

0.8

1–0 –0.1 –100

0.2 –0.3 –300

1.1 –0.4 –400

1.4 –0.3 –300

1.1

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Middle and Late Pliocene epoch of uplift associated with

denudation (4—2.6 Ma)

Subsidence of the TB ceased and this was followed by ac-

celerated  uplift  of  the  mountains  and  basin  floor  during  the
stage of basin inversion. The Pliocene alluvial fans of the Pod-
stráne Member consist of pebble material of Mesozoic rocks
and crystalline basement, or exclusively of pebbles of crystal-
line  rocks  (Fig.  5,  7).  In  the  axial  part  of  basin,  the  fine-
grained fill began to be eroded as a consequence of the general
uplift  of  the  area.  While  the  northern  part  of  the  basin  was
drained  by  the  paleo-Váh  River,  the  estimated  denudation
rates based on recent relief properties suppose the southerly-
flowing paleo-Nitra River as an alternative drainage source for
the southern part of the TB.

Early Quaternary period (2.6—1 Ma)

The Early Quaternary period was tectonically quiet and led

to the formation of a pediment – the ‘River level‘, associated
with deposition of coarse clastic alluvial fans on the basin
margins and lacustrine – fluvial river sediments in subsiding
areas in the southern part of the basin (Diviaky Formation).
Differences between the northern and southern parts of the TB
are also reflected in a significantly lower relative height of the
‘River level’ in the southern part (Fig. 12).

Middle to Late Quaternary period (1 Ma to Recent)

The present river net was formed during the Middle and

Late  Quaternary.  A  left  tributary  of  the  Váh  River  unified
the  recent  Turiec  River  catchment  by  head-ward  erosion
capturing.  However,  previous  isolated  development  of  the
southern  part  of  the  Turiec  Basin  can  still  be  documented
by  the  lower  denudation  effects  linked  with  the  lower
height  of  the  river  terraces.  A  mountain  edge  is  character-
ized  by  a  new  acceleration  in  tectonic  activity,  and  the
preservation  and  heights  of  the  facet  slopes  enable  us  to
distinguish  tectonic  activity  in  these  particular  mountains
(Figs. 11, 12).

Conclusions

Research carried out in the TB and its catchment area en-

abled  a  redefinition  of  the  Turiec  Group  lithostratigraphy
(Fig. 5).  The  most  important  factor  was  the  division  of  the
Miocene  alluvial  fans  into  three  periods:  (1)  latest  Middle
Miocene—earliest Late Miocene; (2) latest Late Miocene—ear-
liest Pliocene, and (3) the latest Pliocene—Quaternary.

Connections between landforms and basin development,

including the impact of erosion, transport, and accumulation
on various sedimentary facies over time and space explained
important relationships through both the reconstruction of
basin paleogeography and the distribution of paleoenviron-
ments.

The model of the Miocene to Quaternary tectonic evolu-

tion documents tectonic pulses caused by changes in the pa-
leostress field and tectonic regimes. The confirmation of the

strong impact of the Pliocene and Pleistocene tectonics on
landscape development is extremely important and this is
also documented by morphotectonic analysis.

Dating of the altitudinal relief differentiation and develop-

ment of flattened surfaces helped the preparation of the mass
balance model which serves as a “final control” of landscape
evolution of the Lake Turiec—Turiec Basin catchment area
from the Miocene to the Quaternary.

The Neogene to Quaternary mass balance model of the

Turiec  Basin  and  its  catchment  area  was  prepared  on  the
basis of comprehensive thermal geochronology, sedimento-
logical  and  geomorphological  data  (Table 1).  This  model
documents periods of tectonic activity and also quiet peri-
ods  with  the  development  of  planation  surfaces  in  the
mountains  adjacent  to  the  Turiec  Basin.  Three  quiet  and
five  tectonically  active  periods  in  the  basin  catchment  can
be distinguished.

The tectonically quiet periods of landscape planation associ-

ated with deposition of fine-grained sediments were: (1) The
Early Miocene epoch (22—16 Ma); (2) The Late Miocene epoch
(11—6 Ma) of the Mid-mountain level development associated
with fine-grained sedimentation of the Martin Formation, and
(3) The Quaternary period (2.6—1 Ma) which represents River
level development.

The tectonically active periods of the TB catchment area con-

sist of: (1) Oligocene—Lower Miocene conversion (?) 34—22 Ma
with  erosion  of  the  Paleogene  strata;  (2)  Middle  Miocene
conversion  16—13 Ma  with  erosion  of  the  Early  Miocene
strata; (3) Middle Miocene uplift of the Žiar Mts and subsid-
ence in the TB southern and central parts 13—11 Ma;  (4) Up-
per  Miocene  to  Pliocene  rapid  uplift  of  the  Malá  Fatra  Mts
subsidence  along  the  western  edges  of  the  basin  6—2.6 Ma,
and (5) Quaternary uplift from 1 Ma to the present of the sur-
rounding  mountains  and  the  development  of  a  river  terrace
system, together with the deposition of coarse clastic fans on
the basin margins.

The recent relief was formed by the domatic uplift of the

planated  Western  Carpathians.  Therefore,  mountains  with
similar altitudes, such as the Malá and Ve ká Fatra Mts here-
in, exhibit totally different FT ages. It can be generally stated
that  the  erosion  of  the  internal  zone  of  the  Central  Western
Carpathian Žiar Mts and Ve ká Fatra Mts in the Turiec Basin
area suffered a significantly lower degree of denudation than
in  the  external  zone  of  the  Malá  Fatra  Mts.  Consequently,
these less eroded crystalline basements display older apatite
fission  track  (AFT)  ages  than  the  more  eroded  complexes
with younger AFT ages near the Pieniny Klippen Belt suture
zone.  Unfortunately,  Pliocene  to  Quaternary  development
and  denudation  is  not  reflected  in  detected  AFT  ages  from
the study area.

Acknowledgments: This work was financially supported by
the Slovak Research and Development Agency APVV under
contracts Nos. ESF—EC—0006—07, APVV LPP—0120— and 06,
APVV—0158—06, APVV—0280—07 and the Slovak Grant
Agency VEGA, grants Nos. 1/0483/10, 1/0461/09, 2/0107/09,
2/0060/09 and 1/0747/11. We are indebted to Dr. L. Matenco,
Dr. A. Nagy and Prof. P. Bosák for careful reviewing and sug-
gestions to improve this article.

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KOVÁČ, HÓK, MINÁR, VOJTKO, BIELIK, PIPÍK, RAKÚS, KRÁ , ŠUJAN and KRÁLIKOVÁ

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 4, 361—379

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