GeolCarp_Vol62_No1_27

www.geologicacarpathica.sk

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

, FEBRUARY 2011, 62, 1, 27—41 doi: 10.2478/v10096-011-0003-1

Long- to short-term denudation rates in the southern

Apennines: geomorphological markers and chronological

constraints

DARIO GIOIA

1,2

, CLAUDIO MARTINO

and MARCELLO SCHIATTARELLA

Dipartimento di Scienze Geologiche, Basilicata University, Campus Macchia Romana, 85100 Potenza, Italy; dario.gioia@unibas.it;

claudio.martino@alice.it; marcello.schiattarella@unibas.it

Dipartimento di Geologia e Geofisica, Universit di Bari, Campus Universitario, Via E. Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy

(Manuscript received June 8, 2010; accepted in revised form November 4, 2010)

Abstract: Age constraints of geomorphological markers and consequent estimates of long- to short-term denudation
rates from southern Italy are given here. Geomorphic analysis of the valley of the Tanagro River combined with apatite
fission track data and radiometric dating provided useful information on the ages and evolution of some significant
morphotectonic markers such as regional planated landscapes, erosional land surfaces and fluvial terraces. Reconstruction
of paleotopography and estimation of the eroded volumes were perfomed starting from the plano-altimetric distribution
of several orders of erosional land surfaces surveyed in the study area. Additional data about denudation rates related to
the recent and/or active geomorphological system have been obtained by estimating the amount of suspended sediment
yield at the outlet of some catchments using empirical relationships based on the hierarchical arrangement of the drainage
network. Denudation rates obtained through these methods have been compared with the sedimentation rates calculated
for  two  adjacent  basins  (the  Pantano  di  San  Gregorio  and  the  Vallo  di  Diano),  on  the  basis  of  published  tephro-
chronological  constraints.  These  rates  have  also  been  compared  with  those  calculated  for  the  historical  sediment
accumulation  in  a  small  catchment  located  to  the  north  of  the  study  area,  with  long-term  exhumation  data  from
thermochronometry,  and  with  uplift  rates  from  the  study  area.  Long-  and  short-term  denudation  rates  are  included
between 0.1 and 0.2 mm/yr, in good agreement with regional data and long-term sedimentation rates from the Vallo di
Diano  and  the  Pantano  di  San  Gregorio  Magno  basins.  On  the  other  hand,  higher  values  of  exhumation  rates  from
thermochronometry suggest the existence of  past erosional processes faster than the recent and present-day exogenic
dismantling. Finally, the comparison between uplift and denudation rates indicates that the fluvial erosion did not match
the tectonic uplift during the Quaternary in this sector of the chain. The axial zone of the southern Apennines should
therefore be regarded as a landscape in conditions of geomorphological disequilibrium.

Key words: southern Italy, landscape evolution, morphotectonics, drainage network, denudation rates.

Introduction

The estimation of uplift and denudation rates represents an ac-
tive research field in studying the interaction between climate,
tectonics  and  landscape  evolution  (Whipple  et  al.  1999;
Bonnet  &  Crave  2003;  Burbank  et  al.  2003;  Whipple  2009).
In tectonically active areas, a precise definition of such rates
can offer important information about the landscape evolution
and the interplay between uplift and denudation (Willett 1999;
Willett  &  Brandon  2002;  Wobus  et  al.  2003;  Schiattarella  et
al. 2006; Bishop 2007; Pérez-Pe

a et al. 2009; Martino et al.

2009).  In  the  last  decade,  estimation  of  erosion  from  in  situ
cosmogenic  nuclide  measurement  permitted  clarification  of
the roles of tectonics and climate in the evolution of mountain
belts (Kirchner et al. 2001; Cyr & Granger 2008). Apart from
cosmogenic  data,  paleosurfaces  and,  more  generally,  relict
erosional land surfaces, strath terraces, and hanging slope de-
posits, represent the main geomorphological markers adopted
in orogenic areas for the calculation of uplift and denudation
rates  (Widdowson  1997;  Schiattarella  et  al.  2003,  2006;
Bonow  et  al.  2006).  For  this  reason,  a  fine  age  definition  of
such  markers  is  needed  for  a  more  reliable  estimation  of  the

rates of both endogenic and surface processes. Tectonic- and
climatically-induced  processes  were  responsible  for  the  base
level lowering that led to fluvial incision and geomorphologi-
cal  “de-activation”  of  ancient  landscapes.  The  term  “de-acti-
vation”  is  here  used  to  indicate  a  geomorphological  stage  in
which  uplift-related  incision  and  tectonic  fragmentation  pre-
vailed  over  erosional  processes  able  to  generate  low-relief
landscape  (i.e.  planation,  slope  decline).  Tectonic  uplift  sus-
pended  the  ancient  erosional  base  level  to  which  this  gentle
paleo-landscape was related, triggering a new morphogenetic
stage,  frequently  characterized  by  morphogenetic  conditions
different from the previous ones. Thus, after the de-activation,
geomorphological  processes  acting  on  the  hanging  land  sur-
faces are strongly reduced.

Paleotopographic reconstruction of former base level mor-

phology and comparison with the present-day topography can
be used for a good estimation of the eroded volumes. In this
work,  both  age  constraints  of  morphological  markers  and
long-  to  short-term  denudation  rates  are  furnished,  based  on
the  study  of  the  lower  valley  of  the  Tanagro  River  in  the
southern  Italian  Apennines  (Fig. 1).  Besides  the  remarks  on
the  relative  age  of  the  morphotectonic  markers  based  on  the

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 1, 27—41

morphostratigraphic  relationships  with  Pliocene  and  Quater-
nary  deposits  and  with  other  geomorphological  and  tectonic
features,  new  constraints  have  been  obtained  by  the  re-inter-
pretation  of  apatite  fission  track  data  (Aldega  et  al.  2005;
Mazzoli et al. 2008), whereas erosion rates have been calculat-
ed on the grounds of both missing rock volumes and morpho-
metrically  based  estimation  of  suspended  sediment  yield.
Finally, we performed a comparison of denudation rates at dif-
ferent spatial and temporal scales.

Geological and geomorphological setting

The southern Apennines (Fig. 1) are a north-east verging fold

and thrust belt derived from the deformation of the African
paleomargin (Cello & Mazzoli 1999, and references therein).
Apart from the inner units (Sicilide Unit and Liguride Complex,
sensu Bonardi et al. 1988) that crop out at the top of the thrust
belt,  this  part  of  the  Apennine  chain  is  mainly  composed  of
both shallow and deep water sedimentary units derived from
the  Mesozoic-Cenozoic  circum-Tethyan  domains  and  from
the  Neogene—Pleistocene  foredeep  deposits  (Pescatore  et  al.
1999,  and  references  therein).  From  Langhian—Tortonian
times,  the  thrust  front  moved  progressively  toward  the  east
(Malinverno  &  Ryan  1986),  as  is  also  documented  by  the
age of syntectonic deposits (Pescatore et al. 1999). Thrusting
in  the  frontal  sector  of  the  chain  was  followed  by  back-arc
extension, responsible for the opening of the Tyrrhenian Sea
(Pescatore  et  al.  1999).  The  original  contractional  structure
was dismembered, during Late Pliocene—Pleistocene times, by
strike-slip  and  extensional  faults  (Schiattarella  1998).  As  a
consequence, this sector of the chain is morphologically artic-
ulated  by  the  presence  of  longitudinal  and  transversal  fault-
bounded basins (Cinque et al. 1993; Schiattarella 1998). The
main  orientations  of  the  strike-slip  and  extensional  faults  of
the chain are N120° ± 10°, N150° ± 10° and N50° ± 20° trends.
The  Campania-Lucania  Apennines  are  characterized  by  an
asymmetric topographic profile. Indeed, the western slope of
the chain has a greater mean gradient and a lower length than
the  eastern  slope  (Amato  &  Cinque  1999).  The  line  of  the
highest elevations of the chain is markedly shifted toward the
eastern slope and does not correspond to the regional water
divide  (Amato  et  al.  1995).  Based  on  geological  and  geo-
morphological features (Cinque et al. 1993), the Campania-
Lucania  Apennines  can  be  roughly  subdivided  into  three
parallel zones according to its long-axis (inner or Tyrrhenian
zone, axial zone, and frontal or outer zone).

The axial zone is characterized by an alternation of morpho-

structural ridges with steep slopes of tectonic origin (i.e. fault
line scarp) and Quaternary tectonic depressions. The belt tops
frequently comprise remnants of ancient erosional land surfac-
es, raised by the Quaternary uplift and dismembered by Qua-
ternary faults (Schiattarella et al. 2003, 2006). Consequently,
these erosional land surfaces are arranged in several superim-
posed orders, hanging with regard to the axial zone basins
(Schiattarella et al. 2003, 2006). Such tectonic depressions are
mainly filled with lacustrine and alluvial deposits of Quaterna-
ry age. They are crossed by longitudinal (i.e. parallel to the
long-axis of the basins) V-shaped valleys, with thalwegs gen-

erally ranging between 500 and 700 m a.s.l. The belt tops are
frequently characterized by remnants of ancient erosional land
surface, suspended by Quaternary regional uplift and dismem-
bered by Quaternary fault activity. Consequently, the erosion-
al  land  surfaces  are  arranged  in  several  superimposed  orders
(Schiattarella  et  al.  2003,  2006).  As  a  consequence  of  the
former  erosional  stages,  the  paleosurfaces  are  low-relief  and
high-altitude relict geomorphological features (Schiattarella et
al. 2003, 2006).

The study area coincides with one of the widest hydro-

graphic catchments of the axial zone: the lower Tanagro River
valley  (Fig. 1),  which  longitudinally  crosses  a  portion  of  the
Auletta  basin  (after  Ascione  et  al.  1992)  after  having  run
through  the  Vallo  di  Diano  valley.  The  Auletta  basin  is  a
N120°—130°-trending  fault-bounded  depression  filled  with  a
very  thick  Neogene-Quaternary  marine  to  continental  clastic
succession (Amato et al. 1992; Ascione et al. 1992; Gioia &
Schiattarella 2010). Seismic data showed that the clastic infill
is at least 500 m thick in the basin depocentral area (Amicucci
et al. 2008). The outcropping stratigraphic succession is main-
ly constituted by several hundred meters of continental depos-
its  which  unconformably  overlay  Lower—Middle  Pliocene
marine  to  transitional  sediments.  The  oldest  Pliocene  marine
deposits  are  more  significantly  present  in  the  Mt  Marzano
area. The following (400—500 m thick) continental succession
is composed of several generations of lacustrine, fluvial, and
travertine deposits ranging in age from Late Pliocene to Mid-
dle Pleistocene. The master fault of the Auletta basin is a NE
dipping  high-angle  listric  fault,  located  at  its  south-western
margin.  Along  the  entire  area,  the  Pliocene  and  Quaternary
clastics are tilted towards the south-west and displaced by the
strike-slip  to  extensional  NW—SE  trending  multisplay  fault
bordering  the  Alburni  Mts.  Moreover,  due  to  the  Quaternary
uplift and the border-fault activity, both the basin filling clas-
tic  sequences  and  the  surrounding  carbonate  massifs  have
been  deeply  incised  by  the  fluvial  network.  Besides  faulting
and  tilting,  both  the  limestone  bedrock  and  the  Pliocene  and
Quaternary clastics of the basin infill are featured by several
orders of terraced surfaces.

From a geomorphological point of view, the study area is

characterized by two impressive carbonate massifs bordered
by  steep  slopes  and  deeply  incised  by  transversal  streams.
The landscape of the massifs is characterized by remnants of
erosional land surfaces, organized in several generations and
related to different ancient base levels of erosion. The south-
western  sector  of  the  basin  has  an  impressive  topography
controlled by the Pliocene to Quaternary activity of the fault
systems of the south-western margin of the basin. The north-
eastern flank of the depression is topographically more artic-
ulated,  being  organized  into  minor  synthetic  and  antithetic
faults. Landslides are not widespread in the basin, being lo-
cated only in some sectors of the right orographic side of the
valley, where clay deposits largely crop out.

Methods

A detailed study of relict (i.e. hanging upon the present-day

thalwegs) erosional land surfaces and fluvial terraces has been

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 1, 27—41

performed by field survey, map analysis and aerial photo in-
terpretation  in  order  to  reconstruct  the  ancient  base  levels  of
erosion and the landscape evolution of the Auletta basin and
surrounding  carbonate  massifs.  Age  constraints  of  the  mor-
photectonic  markers  (i.e.  geomorphological  features  with  a
known  geometry  that  can  be  used  to  track  landscape  evolu-
tion,  Burbank  &  Anderson  2001)  have  been  obtained  by  the
re-interpretation  of  apatite  fission  track  data  (Aldega  et  al.
2005;  Mazzoli  et  al.  2008),  combined  with  geological  infor-
mation and morphostratigraphic analysis together with radio-
metric  dating.  Radiometric  dating  consists  of  both  apatite
fission  track  data  from  rocks  belonging  to  different  tectonic
units of the axial zone of the southern Apennines (Aldega et
al. 2005; Mazzoli et al. 2008) and

Ar/

Ar dating of sanidine

crystals from tephra layers interbedded into the Vallo di Diano
lacustrine succession (Karner et al. 1999; Di Leo et al. 2009).
Mean altitudes of morphotectonic markers have been used as
reference levels for the estimation of eroded volumes (Amato
et al. 2003; Martino et al. 2009).

Additional data about denudation rates related to the recent/

active  geomorphological  system  have  been  obtained  by  esti-
mating  the  amount  of  suspended  sediment  yield  of  channels
on the grounds of empirical relationships based on the hierar-
chic  arrangement  of  the  fluvial  network  (Schiattarella  et  al.
2006; Della Seta et al. 2007). These empirical equations were
originally  obtained  by  an  extensive  study  performed  by
Ciccacci et al. (1980), which statistically correlated the values
of measured suspended sediment yield at the outlets of several
Italian catchments to some geomorphic and climatic parame-
ters  (see  § Morphometric  analysis  of  the  drainage  network
and indirect estimation of denudation rates).

Long- and short-term denudation rates obtained through

these  methods  have  been  compared  with  the  sedimentation
rates  calculated  from  two  adjacent  endorheic  basins  (the
Pantano  di  San  Gregorio  and  the  Vallo  di  Diano  basins,
Fig. 2)  on  the  basis  of  published  chronological  constraints
provided  by  tephrochronological  data  (Karner  et  al.  1999;
Aiello et al. 2007). This dataset has also been compared with
the sedimentation rates calculated by de Vente et al. (2006) for
the historical sediment deposition in a small catchment locat-
ed  in  the  northern  sector  of  the  study  area  (de  Vente  et  al.
2006), as well as with the uplift rates of the study area and the
regional long-term exhumation data provided by thermochro-
nometry (Aldega et al. 2005; Mazzoli et al. 2008). Apatite fis-
sion  track  analysis  (AFTA)  furnished  additional  data
concerning the time and rates of cooling related to exhumation
in the uppermost part of the crust (i.e. below the 110 °C iso-
therm). Thermal histories of rocks belonging to different tec-
tonic units of the southern Apennines chain have been used in
combination with geology and morphotectonic analysis to de-
fine both the amounts and timing of denudation and/or uplift.
An absolute chronology may be defined by combining the on-
set and duration of cooling events estimated from AFTA with
stratigraphical data (i.e. hiatuses in the stratigraphy, age of the
syntectonic basins) and the formation of erosional surfaces on
a regional scale. Since the onset of the cooling episode deter-
mined from apatite fission track data agrees with the relative
timing  for  the  formation  of  the  regional  paleosurface  in  the
southern Apennines, we infer that both the cooling event and

the erosional land surface are evidence of the same episode of
exhumation (note that the AFT cluster is comprised between 2
and 3 Ma, as well as that the mid-Pliocene sediments are the
youngest deposit involved in the ancient planation process). A
similar approach has recently been used in different tectonic set-
tings and geodynamic contexts (Gunnell 1998; Schoenbohm
et al. 2004; Bonow et al. 2006; Japsen et al. 2006).

Age constraints of morphotectonic markers and missing
volumes estimation

Reconstruction of paleotopography and identification of an-

cient  base  levels  of  erosion  in  the  Auletta  basin  were  per-
formed  through  a  detailed  geomorphological  study  of  relict
(i.e.  hanging  upon  the  present-day  thalwegs)  erosional  land
surfaces and fluvial terraces. The reconstructed paleomorphol-
ogy allowed us to obtain estimates of eroded volumes (Fig. 3)
from  the  ancient  morphology  inferred  from  morphotectonic
markers (Amato et al. 2003; Schiattarella et al. 2008; Martino
et al. 2009; Pérez-Pe

a et al. 2009). The estimation of eroded

volumes in the drainage network of the Tanagro River lower
valley was perfomed through a GIS-aided calculation support-
ed by a SRTM-DEM, using the order of erosional land surfac-
es more chronologically constrained (i.e. the S3 erosional land
surfaces).  The  mapped  remnants  of  relict  geomorphological
land  surfaces  have  been  interpolated  by  TIN  (triangulated
irregular network) and subtracted pixel by pixel to the present-
day  topography.  Then,  denudation  rates  were  calculated  on
the  basis  of  the  relative  age  (sensu  Watchman  &  Twidale
2002)  assigned  to  the  morphotectonic  markers  (mainly  land
surfaces  and  paleosols).  The  geomorphological  mapping  of
relict sub-horizontal surfaces (i.e. hanging erosional land sur-
faces and fluvial terraces) and their relationships with tectonic
lineaments and Quaternary deposits provided consistent infor-

Fig. 2. DEM of the southern Apennines chain and location of the
study area. The Auletta basin is represented in the white box a). Black
circles indicate the cores of the Pantano di San Gregorio Magno basin
b), and the Vallo di Diano basin c), and the artificial reservoir of the
Muro Lucano town d). The stars indicate the studied stratigraphic
sections: 1 – Buonabitacolo; 2 – Grotta S. Angelo; 3 – Brienza;
4 – Serre Piane; 5 – Cangito; 6 – Auletta; 7 – Portola.

DENUDATION RATES IN THE SOUTHERN APENNINES

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 1, 27—41

mation on the long-term landscape evolution, whereas the re-
interpretation  of  data  from  apatite  fission  track  analysis  fur-
nished  further  chronological  constraints  (Aldega  et  al.  2005;
Schiattarella et al. 2006; Mazzoli et al. 2008). The uplift his-
tory of the summit palaeosurface has been derived by study-
ing  the  stratigraphical  and  morphostructural  evolution  of
some  intermontane  basins  located  along  the  axial  zone  of  the
Apennine chain (Auletta, Melandro, and Vallo di Diano basins).
Moreover, other chronological constraints have been obtained
by the radiometric dating of tephra and paleosols interbedded
in the continental deposits of the Auletta and Vallo di Diano
basins (Di Leo et al. 2009).

Denudation rates have been estimated from the elevation

and de-activation age of the erosional surfaces referred to the
ancient base level. The eroded rock volume below a reference
surface is evaluated and the corresponding denudation rate is
computed as follows:

Dr = V/A * T

(1)

where Dr is the denudation rate, V the eroded volume, A the

area below the reference surface and T

the de-activation age

of the reference land surface. It is worth noting that the meth-
odological approach based on the estimation of eroded vol-
umes is based on the assumption that the erosional processes
were dominant with respect to the depositional ones after the
morphological de-activation of the chosen morphotectonic
markers (Martino et al. 2009).

The reconstruction of paleorelief and the evaluation of the

eroded  volumes  have  been  performed  for  the  entire  drainage
basin using the plano-altimetric distribution of the S3 erosion-
al land surfaces, chronologically constrained at ca. 0.8—0.6 Ma
on  the  grounds  of  radiometric  dating.  Such  an  estimation  is
supported  by  a  DEM  extracted  by  SRTM  (Shuttle  Radar
Topography  Mission)  altimetric  data  and  is  based  on  a  sub-

traction pixel by pixel between the reconstructed paleo-
morphology and the present-day topography. After the surface
uplift of the S3 land surface, the amount of sedimentation in
the basin is negligible, being restricted to small bodies of allu-
vial, colluvial and slope deposits. Thus, it is likely that ero-
sional processes are prevalent after the de-activation of the S3
erosional land surfaces.

To get more information about fluvial incision and erosion-

al processes at a sub-basin scale, a similar approach (i.e. based
on the estimation of eroded volumes) has been applied to sev-
eral key sectors of the study area, using 1 : 25,000 scale topo-
graphic maps and DEMs with a spatial resolution of 20 m.
The selected sub-basins represent all the sectors of the drain-
age basin, being illustrative of the different geomorphological
and litho-structural settings. In addition, they are characterized
by the dominance of erosional processes rather than the depo-
sitional ones and by a good preservation of the morphotecton-
ic markers used as a reference level along the valley flanks.

In the case of the small endorheic basin of the Pantano San

Gregorio  Magno  and  surrounding  mountains,  the  reconstruc-
tion  of  the  bedrock  top  was  attempted  on  the  basis  of  the
thickness of the Middle Pleistocene to Holocene lacustrine de-
posits  and  the  interfingered  alluvial  fan  sediments  (Aiello  et
al. 2007). As the available cores did not reach the bedrock, a
filling thickness of 150 m has been deduced assuming a mean
sedimentation  rate  of  0.3 mm/yr  (Aiello  et  al.  2007),  taking
into account the mid-Pleistocene genesis of the basin.

Morphometric analysis of the drainage network and indirect
estimation of denudation rates

An indirect estimation of the erosion processes related to the

recent and modern geomorphological system was performed
on the basis of the planimetric and planar geometry of the
drainage network. The drainage pattern in tectonically active

Fig. 3. Sketch of the method used for the calculation of the eroded rock volume in some catchment basins of the lower valley of the Tanagro
River. The method is based on altitude difference between reference surface and present-day topography.

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 1, 27—41

regions is very sensitive to perturbations induced by both tec-
tonics  and  climate  processes  (Avena  et  al.  1967;  Firpo  &
Spagnolo 2001; Beneduce et al. 2004; Capolongo et al. 2005;
Della Seta et al. 2007; among others). Several authors demon-
strated that geomorphic indexes are very helpful for assessing
the strong sensitivity of the fluvial system to tectonic and cli-
mate  processes  responsible  for  accelerated  river  incision,
asymmetries  of  the  catchments,  and  river  diversions.  Indeed,
these morphometric parameters are related to the influence of
tectonics,  lithology  and  climate  on  the  development  and  ar-
rangement of fluvial channels (Capolongo et al. 2005; Pedrera
et  al.  2009;  Gioia  &  Schiattarella  2010;  Pérez-Pe

a et al.

2010). In this work, morphometric analysis allowed us to cal-
culate several parameters of the drainage network which were
used to estimate fluvial turbid transport data, an expression of
the degree of the erosion within the drainage basin (Avena et
al.  1967;  Schiattarella  et  al.  2006,  2008;  Della  Seta  et  al.
2007).  More  specifically,  empirical  relationships  linking  the
Tu (mean annual suspended sediment yield) with morphomet-
ric parameters of the drainage network such as drainage den-
sity  and  hierarchical  anomaly  density  (Ciccacci  et  al.  1980;
Della Seta et al. 2007) were used. The values of the Tu index
estimated by this equations can be considered a proxy for mid-
term (i.e. Holocene) denudation rates although it present some
problems. Indeed, this estimation does not include the amount
of channel bedload, which is small part of the total solid load
in  the  Mediterranean  region  (Newson  1981).  On  the  other
hand,  small  catchments  draining  the  high-relief  mountain  re-
gion of the axial zone of southern Italian Apennines can have
a higher percentage of bedload (Rovira et al. 2005). Further-
more,  it  is  worth  noting  that  the  estimation  of  sediment  dis-
charge may be representative of the recent (i.e. Holocene) to
present-day geomorphological system.

The drainage network of the studied areas was derived from

1 : 25,000 scale I.G.M.I. topographic maps and aerial photo-in-
terpretation. All the channels were classified according to the
Strahler (1957) hierarchic scheme and the following morpho-
metric parameters have been evaluated for each sub-basin:
bifurcation ratio (Rb = N

/ N

u + 1

where N

and N

u + 1

are the

number of streams per order u and u+1, respectively; Strahler
1957), direct bifurcation ratio (Rbd = N

u + 1

where N

the number of streams of u order which flow in u + 1 order and
N

u+1

is the number of streams per order u and u + 1, respective-

ly; Avena et al. 1967), bifurcation index (R = Rb—Rbd, where
Rb and Rbd are the bifurcation ratio and the direct bifurcation
ratio, respectively; Avena et al. 1967),  hierarchical anomaly
number  (Ga,  the  number  of  I  order  streams  which  make  the
drainage  network  perfectly  hierarchized,  i.e.  with  a  value  of
N

= N

Avena et al. 1967), hierarchical anomaly index

( a = Ga/N

where Ga is the hierarchical anomaly number

and N

is the number of I order streams; Avena et al. 1967),

hierarchical anomaly density (ga = Ga/A where Ga is the
hierarchic anomaly number and A is the area of the sub-
basins; Avena et al. 1967).

All these indices are widely used by the Italian workers as

indicators of the degree of organization of the drainage net-
work which is controlled by several factors such as tectonics,
lithology, climate, topography. For example, a well organized
hydrographic catchment (e.g. developed in a tectonically inac-

tive and  lithologically uniform area) tends to assume low val-
ues of some morphometric parameters (e.g. Rb and Rbd close
to 1; R, Ga and  a close to 0). On the contrary, several authors
have demonstrated that the same parameters generally assume
high  values  in  catchments  fairly  organized  as  a  consequence
of  recent  perturbations  due  to  tectonics,  geomorphological
processes  and  climate  variations  (Firpo  &  Spagnolo  2001;
Beneduce et al. 2004; Capolongo et al. 2005; Gioia & Schiat-
tarella 2006, 2010). In particular, anomalous confluences (i.e.
channels of u order which are not flowing in channels of order
u + 1) are widely diffused in drainage basins highly perturbed
by tectonic or geomorphological processes (Avena et al. 1967;
Gioia & Schiattarella 2006). In this paper, such indices have
been calculated for the entire drainage basin and for each sub-
basin in order to evaluate the Tu (mean annual suspended sed-
iment  yield),  using  the  empirical  relationships  proposed  by
Ciccacci et al. (1980). In particular, the following relation has
been used:

Log Tu=1.82818 Log D+0.01769ga+1.53034 (2)

where Tu is the fluvial turbid transport (the mean annual

sediment yield transported in suspension per unitary area of
the basin), D is the drainage density and ga is the hierarchic
anomaly density.

The values of the Tu index within the hydrographic catch-

ment of the lower Tanagro River valley may be considered as
an indicator of denudation intensity. Giving a bulk density to
the sediments outcropping in the drainage basin, it is possible
to convert the Tu index into mean denudation rates. More spe-
cifically, the conversion of Tu values into denudation rates
(Ta) has been obtained as follows:

Ta = (Tu / )* 10

—3

(3)

where Tu is the estimated mean annual suspended sediment

yield and   is the mean bulk density assigned to every sub-ba-
sin.  The  areal  distribution  of  outcropping  lithology  within
each sub-basin has been assessed and a mean value of density
reflecting  the  lithological  features  was  assigned  according  to
the values proposed by Tiberti et al. (2005).

Results

Geomorphological and chronological constraints on paleo-
topographic reconstruction

Long-term landscape evolution of the Auletta basin results

from  the  interaction  between  tectonic  and  geomorphological
processes,  largely  controlled  by  regional  uplift,  fault  activity
and  climate  changes.  The  morphostructural  evolution  of  the
Auletta basin is characterized by stages of tectonic uplift and
fault activity alternating with periods of sculpting of erosional
land surfaces and deposition of sedimentary bodies with gen-
tly  dipping  tops  (alluvial  fans  and  flood),  both  related  to  the
different past base levels of the trough. In the catchment basin,
four generations of erosional land surfaces (Fig. 4), carved in
both limestone bedrock and Pliocene-Quaternary clastic sedi-

GIOIA, MARTINO and SCHIATTARELLA

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 1, 27—41

outcropping on the top of the Maddalena Mts (Schiattarella et
al. 2003) and in the Mt Marzano area, involved in the plana-
tion of the paleosurface. Based on the assumption that the re-
gional  uplift  and  fault  activity  related  to  the  tectonic  stage
responsible for the morphological de-activation of that ancient
land surface created the accommodation space for continental
infill of the intermontane catchments, the regional correlation
of the stratigraphic successions from different basins can pro-
vide chronological constraints to better identify the age of the
first significant vertical movements (Fig. 6). This vertical mo-
tion  is  responsible  for  the  geomorphological  de-activation  of
the paleosurface and its uplift, whereas pervasive faulting and
fluvial  erosion  are  accountable  for  its  subsequent  fragmenta-
tion (Martino et al. 2009). According to all the evidence, it is
possible to assign a Late Pliocene age to the oldest paleosur-
face (i.e. S1 in Fig. 4) of the Alburni and Mt Marzano massifs,
generally  found  above  1100 m  a.s.l.  The  S2  erosional  land
surfaces (Fig. 4) frequently represents dislocated remnants of
the oldest one and their chronological attribution to the Early
Pleistocene is corroborated by the presence of Lower Pleisto-
cene  fluvial  conglomerates  in  a  small  relic  of  this  erosional
land surface in the western sector of the Mt San Giacomo. The
S3 erosional surfaces (Fig. 4) can be laterally correlated with a
fluvial terrace cutting the Lower-Middle Pleistocene lacustrine
deposits of the Vallo di Diano basin (Fig. 5). Then, the genesis
of the S3 surfaces represents a geomorphic stage immediately
following the deposition of the lacustrine deposits of the Vallo
di Diano basin. Since these deposits have been radiometrically

dated  to  0.706 Ma  in  the  uppermost  stratigraphic  levels  (Di
Leo  et  al.  2009),  the  S3  land  surface  can  be  reasonably  re-
ferred to the Early Pleistocene—Middle Pleistocene time-span.
The  youngest  generation  of  erosional/depositional  surfaces
(S4 in Fig. 4) – well preserved in the western tip of the valley
and  in  the  Torrente  Petroso  valley  –  is  morphologically  in-
serted into the older erosional surfaces and cut into the young-
est  deposits  (ascribed  to  the  upper  part  of  the  Middle
Pleistocene  –  Buccino  et  al.  1978;  Gioia  &  Schiattarella
2010) outcropping in the basin. The uplift-induced dissection
of  S4  land  surfaces  can  be  attributed  to  a  regional  tectonic
event  occurring  at  the  Middle  to  Late  Pleistocene  transition
(Bordoni & Valensise 1998), detected also in the adjacent Sele
Plain (Amato et al. 1991) and likely responsible for the subse-
quent tilting of the westernmost land surfaces.

The long-term denudation rates obtained using the order of

relict  land  surfaces  better  constrained  in  the  study  area  (S3
erosional  landsurfaces,  mean  elevation  of  530 m  a.s.l.,  uplift
age  of  0.8—0.6 Ma)  are  0.22—0.29 mm/yr,  in  good  agreement
with  data  calculated  at  the  regional  scale,  on  the  grounds  of
cartographic,  GIS-aided  and/or  morphometric  methods
(Schiattarella et al. 2008; Martino et al. 2009). The mean den-
udation rates estimated at the sub-basin scale are roughly set-
tled on similar values, being included within a narrow range of
0.14—0.24 mm/yr (Fig. 7). Weak increases of denudation rates
have  been  recorded  for  both  reference  levels  of  the  Early
Pleistocene  and  Late  Pleistocene.  Low  data  variability  indi-
cates  a  good  consistency  of  acquired  datasets.  Denudation

Fig. 5. Stratigraphic correlations among different logs from Vallo di Diano, Auletta and Melandro basin. The inferred ages of de-activation
of the several generations of the erosional landsurfaces are also shown.

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rates  from  the  Pantano  San  Gregorio  Magno  basin  and  sur-
rounding  mountain  ranges  from  0.07  to  0.13 mm/yr,  thus
showing the lowest values in the investigated area. The small
catchment of the Pantano San Gregorio Magno basin is char-
acterized by transverse channels joined to the local base level
of the endorheic depression, located at a higher elevation than
ancient and present-day thalwegs of the main stream. Due to
this peculiar feature of the river longitudinal profiles, the effi-
cacy of fluvial incision in this area has been limited with re-
spect  to  the  adjacent  sectors  of  the  Tanagro  River  drainage
basin.

Drainage basin and mean annual suspended sediment yield
(Tu) estimation

The drainage basin covers an area of about 300 km

(Fig. 8)

and  has  a  planimetric  shape  stretched  in  WNW—ESE  direc-
tion. The fluvial network developed mainly on shallow-water
carbonates  and  fluvial  conglomerates  (Fig. 1).  Consequently,
it  is  characterized  by  low  values  of  drainage  density  (mean
value  of  2.33)  and  by  a  low  hierarchical  organization.  The
drainage network is more developed in the western sector of
the catchment, where terrigenous (siliciclastic) deposits large-
ly crop out (Figs. 1 and 8).

The main streams of the area (e.g. Tanagro and Bianco Riv-

ers) cut deeply into the Pliocene-Quaternary deposits and fol-
low  the  trend  of  the  border  faults  with  a  planimetric
arrangement roughly rectilinear (Fig. 1). The main tributaries
generally run in narrow V-shaped valleys, where incision pro-
cesses have prevailed over the depositional ones. Confluences
are frequently right-angled and high-angle stream-elbows are
frequent (Fig. 4). The activity of the Alburni Mts master fault
provoked a lateral shift of the Tanagro River toward the south-
western  side  of  the  valley,  as  also  demonstrated  by  morpho-
metric  analysis  of  the  drainage  net  (Gioia  &  Schiattarella
2010).  Such  a  migration  favoured  the  development  of  an
asymmetric  valley  and  it  is  also  confirmed  by  independent
morphostratigraphic  data  such  as  the  migration  of  the  recent
depocenter  of  the  basin  toward  the  north-western  sector  and
the tilting of the Middle to Upper Pleistocene S4 land surface
located  in  that  sector  of  the  basin  (see  also  Buccino  et  al.
1978). Moreover, the values of the morphometric parameters
also suggest a significant structural influence on the arrange-
ment of the main streams. As a matter of fact, the highest val-
ues of the bifurcation ratio (Rb), direct bifurcation ratio (Rbd ),
and bifurcation index (R) were found in the major sub-basins.

Apart from the relationships between tectonics and fluvial

network evolution, morphometric analysis of the drainage

Fig. 6. Stratigraphic successions from different basins of the axial zone of the southern Apennines, AFT data and chronological constraints
on the age of the summit paleosurface.

GIOIA, MARTINO and SCHIATTARELLA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 1, 27—41

Fig. 7. Tables and diagram of the denudation and sedimentation rates calculated in some key areas of the lower valley of the Tanagro River basin.

basin allowed us to estimate the Tu index (cf. § Morphomet-
ric analysis of the drainage network and indirect estimation
of denudation rates) for every sub-basin of the studied drain-
age  basin.  The  values  of  the  Tu  index  showed  a  wide  vari-
ability,  ranging  from  67  (B8  sub-basin)  to  1342  (D5
sub-basin)  t/km

/yr. The higher Tu values ( > 700 t/km

/yr

with peaks of 1200—1300 t/km

/yr) were recorded in small

catchments of the easternmost part of the drainage basin

(B10, B12, Z9, D4, and D5 sub-basins) and in some small
sub-basins of the left side of the Bianco River (F2 and V sub-
basins). Both these sectors are characterized by clay or shale
deposits, a well developed drainage network and some land-
slides. The mean value of the Tu index for the entire drain-
age area is 301 t/km

/yr while the lowest values of less than

100 t/km

/yr are typically concentrated in sub-basins where

carbonate rocks and conglomerate deposits crop out. The

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 1, 27—41

lowest values of the Tu index ( < 100 t/km

/yr) have been re-

corded in sub-basins draining calcareous areas of the Marza-
no and Alburni massifs (B2, B3, B4 and B5 and H3
sub-basins), Holocene palustrine deposits (B8 sub-basin)
and conglomerate deposits (G1 sub-basin). Catchments with
travertine outcrops have Tu values of about 110—130 t/km

/yr,

as well. The areal distribution of the  Tu index in the whole
drainage  basin  showed  a  strong  correlation  with  lithology.
The carbonate sub-basins are characterized by few channels
deeply incised into the bedrock with high gradients. In such
a geomorphological setting, it is likely that most of the sedi-
ments  are  transported,  during  rainstorm  events,  as  bedload
by ephemeral channels. Therefore, using a Tu-based evalua-
tion, some underestimation of real erosion processes can be
hypothesized.

Assuming a bulk density of sediments ranging from 2200 to

2700 kg/m

(Tiberti et al. 2005) the function of the spatial ar-

rangement of the different deposits in every single sub-basin,
the mean denudation rates (Ta, Fig. 7) for the entire drainage
area correspond to about 0.12 mm/yr.

Comparison between denudation, sedimentation,

uplift, and exhumation rates

Denudation rates obtained from paleotopographic recon-

struction and from the indirect estimation of suspended sedi-
ment yield have been compared with the long- and
short-term sedimentation rates estimated from the sedimen-
tary sequences filling intermontane basins and from the de-

Fig. 8. Drainage network of the lower valley of the Tanagro River
and map of the areal distribution of the Tu index map. Catchment
and sub-basins are named with capital letters.

GIOIA, MARTINO and SCHIATTARELLA

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 1, 27—41

posits filling a reservoir, with the local uplift rates, and with
the regional exhumation rates.

Reservoir sedimentation data for a small catchment

(50 km

) located a few kilometers north of the study area,

provided useful information on historical sediment accumu-
lation.  The  catchment  showed  a  well  developed  fluvial  net-
work  and  is  characterized  by  wide  outcrops  of  terrigenous
deposits  affected  by  mass  movements.  The  resulting  sedi-
ment yield of the reservoir is 1570 t/km

/yr corresponding to

mean denudation rates of 0.5—0.6 mm/yr with a rock density
of 2.6 g/cm

(Fig. 9). The drainage network pattern, litho-

structural  setting  and  geomorphological  features  of  this
catchment are quite similar to those of the sub-basins of the
Tanagro River drainage network characterized by the higher
values  of  Tu  index.  Then,  a  good  correlation  of  the  mean
denudation  rates  calculated  in  these  two  cases  can  be
stressed.  This  interpretation  is  confirmed  by  the  strong  in-
crease  of  the  Tu  values  in  areas  affected  by  badlands  and
mass movements (Della Seta et al. 2009). These data suggest
that  the  indirect  evaluation  of  Tu  index  is  more  reliable  in
fluvial  basins  developed  in  terrigenous  deposits  affected  by
landslides, with high drainage density and medium to low re-
lief. On the other hand, the analysis of Tu index in limestone
sub-basins  showing  high  relief,  a  poorly  developed  fluvial
net,  and  high  stream  gradients  suggests  a  certain  degree  of
underestimation  with  respect  to  denudation  rates  calculated
by  missing  volumes.  A  refinement  of  the  Tu  experimental
equations with regard to the real physiography of the studied
areas is therefore desirable.

Long-term sedimentation rates have been calculated from

core analysis using depth and age of tephra levels interbedded
with lacustrine deposits of the San Gregorio Magno and Vallo

Fig. 9. Rates of denudation, sedimentation, uplift and exhumation obtained by different approaches and on multi-spatial and multi-temporal scales.

di Diano basins. Using the

Ar/

Ar age of Karner et al.

(1999), the sedimentation rate in the Vallo di Diano basin dur-
ing  the  last  0.6 Myr  is  0.3 mm/yr.  According  to  Aiello  et  al.
(2007),  a  mean  sedimentation  rate  for  the  last  170 kyr  of
0.24 mm/yr  characterizes  the  San  Gregorio  Magno  basin.
These values are very close to the denudation rates estimated
by paleotopographic reconstruction.

Uplift rates have been calculated using the difference in

height  between  the  absolute  (i.e.  sea  level)  or  local  (i.e.
present-day thalweg) erosion base levels and the several gen-
erations of erosional land surfaces. Vertical erosion (i.e. inci-
sion) rates have also been calculated and converted in local
uplift  rates  assuming  that  eustatic  changes  did  not  produce
relevant  effects  in  this  sector  of  the  orogen.  The  estimation
of regional uplift from the mean elevation of S1 and S2 land
surfaces is based on the assumption that the morphogenesis
of these morphotectonic markers occurred close to sea level
(Schiattarella et al. 2009). The reconstruction of the original
land  surface  paleomorphology  based  on  a  morphostrati-
graphic  correlation  of  many  remnants  on  a  regional  scale
(Martino & Schiattarella 2006; Schiattarella et al. 2009) and
the presence of the Pliocene marine deposits locally involved
in the planation of the summit paleosurface seem to confirm
this assumption.

The reconstruction of the original paleomorphology of the

S3 land surfaces and the comparison with present-day longitu-
dinal stream profiles allowed us to infer a probable fluvial ori-
gin at an elevation of about 100 m above the sea level in the
sector corresponding to the present-day Auletta basin (Marti-
no & Schiattarella 2006). This reconstruction permitted us to
correct the absolute vertical movement of the S3 land surfaces
and their uplift rates (Fig. 9). Regional uplift rates vary from

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GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 2011, 62, 1, 27—41

0.5 mm/yr to 0.73 mm/yr, with average values of 0.6 mm/yr.
The lowest values were recorded from the S3 land surfaces
(Middle Pleistocene in age) whereas the highest ones were
calculated from the Lower Pleistocene relict land surfaces (i.e.
the S2 erosional land surfaces).

The comparison between uplift and denudation rates sug-

gests that the fluvial erosion did not match the tectonic uplift
in  this  sector  of  the  axial  zone  of  the  southern  Apennines,
which  therefore  could  result  a  transient  landscape  (sensu
Bracken  &  Wainwright  2008)  in  a  non-steady  system.  The
discrepancy between uplift and denudation rates implies two
fundamental points: 1) growth of relief in the study area still
occurs; 2) an increase of denudation rates during the periods
of  maximum  uplift  can  be  inferred  (Fig. 9).  Apatite  fission
track  analysis  of  rocks  belonging  to  different  tectonic  units
of the axial zone of the southern Apennines indicates a con-
cordant  Middle  to  Late  Pliocene  final  cooling  age  of  ca.
2.5 Ma (Schiattarella et al. 2009, Fig. 9). Although the geo-
thermal  gradient  is  poorly  constrained  and  the  exhumation
rates can be affected by errors, the values of the exhumation
rates are significantly higher than estimated denudation and
uplift rates. An exhumation rate of about 1.6 mm/yr for the
last 3 Myr can in fact be inferred from thermochronometry,
indicating  the  existence  of  past  erosional  processes  faster
than the recent and present-day exogenic dismantling, whose
velocities  have  been  obtained  by  our  paleotopographic  re-
construction.  Tectonic  denudation  processes  accounted  for
the  exhumation  of  Mesozoic  core  of  the  chain  during  older
periods  (from  Late  Miocene  to  Early—Middle  Pliocene)  of
the  orogenic  evolution  (Schiattarella  et  al.  2003,  2006),  but
they do not seem suitable for the time interval here consid-
ered.  Marine  erosion  linked  to  eustatic  rising  can  be  taken
into consideration as an efficient mechanism of planation on
a  regional  scale,  able  to  sculpt  huge  flat  landscapes  and  to
dismantle  large  volumes  of  rocks.  It  is  probable  that  AFT
data cluster at 2.5—2.6 Myr could really represent the age of
formation of the paleosurface of the southern Apennines: in
such  a  case,  the  higher  denudation  rates  may  be  due  to  the
rapid  dismantling  of  shaly  units  (e.g.  Liguride  units,  i.e.
ophiolite-bearing  “internal”  units,  Sicilide  units,  mainly
composed of deep-sea polychrome clay, and Miocene Flysch
units)  which  tectonically  or  stratigraphically  covered  the
Campania-Lucania carbonate platform.

Concluding remarks

In this work we have given an indirect estimation of the sus-

pended sediment yield at the outlet of the drainage basin of
lower valley of the Tanagro River, southern Italian Apennines,
by using empirical equations between the Tu index and some
parameters of the fluvial network (Ciccacci et al. 1980). In ad-
dition, we adopted and developed a methodology for the esti-
mation of long-term denudation rates from the same area.
Such a methodology is based on the reconstruction of the re-
lief prior to river incision by using geomorphic markers of an-
cient base levels as reference surfaces. In the case of the small
endorheic basin of the Pantano San Gregorio Magno, a recon-
struction of the buried bedrock top was attempted in order to

refine the missing rock volume estimation. Moreover, to better
constrain the estimates of uplift and denudation rates, mor-
phostratigraphical observations have been integrated with pre-
existing radiometric dating (i.e. AFT analysis and Ar/Ar
dating) in order to obtain a reliable definition of the ages of the
morphotectonic markers.

Long-term denudation rates obtained by different approach-

es  performed  on  multi-spatial  and  multi-temporal  scales,  are
settled within a narrow range of about 0.1—0.2 mm/yr, in good
agreement  with  the  long-term  sedimentation  rates  from  the
Vallo di Diano and the Pantano di San Gregorio Magno basins
and  with  data  on  a  regional  scale  (Amato  et  al  2003;
Schiattarella et al. 2006, 2008). Higher values of exhumation
rates  from  thermochronometry  suggest  the  existence  of  ero-
sional past processes faster than the recent and present-day ex-
ogenic  dismantling.  Other  mechanisms,  such  as  relatively
rapid marine erosion of wide flatlands, can be invoked for the
older stages of denudation of the southern Apennines.

Concerning the Tu index, it can be considered as a suitable

proxy for mid- to long-term denudation rate calculations in
areas characterized by fluvial processes mainly acting on ter-
rigenous deposits with high drainage density and medium to
low relief.

Quaternary uplift rates from the Auletta basin and surround-

ing  mountains,  calculated  using  the  difference  in  height  be-
tween  the  absolute  (i.e.  sea  level)  or  local  (i.e.  present-day
thalweg)  erosion  base  levels  and  the  several  generations  of
erosional  land  surfaces,  are  about  three  times  as  high  as  the
denudation  rates,  suggesting  that  the  fluvial  incision  did  not
balance tectonic uplift in the area.

Acknowledgments: We sincerely thank Marta Della Seta and
an anonymous referee for their useful comments and sugges-
tions in reviewing the manuscript. Further, we wish to thank
Professor J. Minár for the final supervision of the paper. This
study was financially supported by MIUR PRIN 2005—2008
and Fondi di Ateneo 2007 and 2008 (Basilicata University)
Grants (Professor M. Schiattarella).

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