GeolCarp_Vol52_No2_91

GEOLOGICA CARPATHICA, 52, 2, BRATISLAVA, APRIL 2001

91—102

PRESSURE-SOLUTION AND CHEMICAL COMPACTION

OF CONDENSED MIDDLE JURASSIC DEPOSITS, HIGH-TATRIC SERIES,

TATRA MOUNTAINS

PIOTR ŁUCZYŃSKI

Institute of Geology, Warsaw University, al. Zwirki i Wigury 93, 02-089 Warszawa, Poland

(Manuscript received October 16, 2000; accepted in revised form March 15, 2001)

Abstract: Condensed Middle Jurassic deposits (Dunajec Group), outcropping in the High-Tatric tectonic units of the
Tatra Mountains, were subjected to intensive pressure dissolution resulting in great thickness reduction. Crinoidal lime-
stones of the Smolegowa Formation (Bajocian) lost about 20 % of their thickness. The Krupianka Formation (Bathonian)
occurs in three lithofacies, differing in the intensity of pressure-solution phenomena. Chemical compaction of the Krupianka
crinoidal limestones equalled >30 %, of stylonodular limestones – ~50 %, and of ferruginous limestones even –
~70 %. It differed in various tectonic units, probably due to different tectonic history. The ferruginous and stylonodular
limestones owe their modern development to pressure-solution processes. The ferruginous limestones are highly en-
riched in elements resistant to dissolution. The stylonodular structure formed by selective dissolution of nodular lime-
stones. Pre-compactional differences between the Krupianka Formation lithofacies were less evident than they are today.

Key words: Central Western Carpathians, Tatra Mountains, condensed Middle Jurassic deposits, crinoidal limestones,
compaction, pressure-solution.

Introduction

The  present-day  development,  texture  and  structure  of  sedi-
mentary rocks are highly influenced by diagenetic phenomena.
Diagenetic  compaction  embraces  a  range  of  mechanical  and
chemical  processes.  The  present  paper  is  an  attempt  to  de-
scribe and evaluate the late diagenetic processes of chemical
compaction caused by pressure-solution, which took place af-
ter the rock lithification. The obtained values concerning the
so-called pre-compactional attributes of the rocks are therefore
to be treated as referring to lithified deposits, which have al-
ready  undergone  mechanical  compaction,  undoubtedly  also
causing substantial thickness reduction.

The intensity and type of pressure-solution depends on the

rock’s structure, and particularly on such attributes as: occur-
rence of early cements, size of crystals and clasts, carbonate
content,  insoluble  components’  admixture,  and  rock  homo-
geneity  (e.g.  Wanless  1979;  Buxton  &  Sibley  1981).  Pres-
sure-solution phenomena display a wide range of types, from
sutured  stylolites  to  non-sutured  dissolution  seams.  Apart
from  the  rock’s  structural  attributes,  the  range  of  chemical
compaction processes is a function of cap-rock pressure, and
may  to  some  extend  depend  also  on  regional  compressive
tectonics (Railsback 1993; Mišík et al. 1994).

Pressure-solution had great influence on the modern at-

tributes of the High-Tatric condensed Middle Jurassic depos-
its. Their occurrence in three tectonic units, representing dif-
ferent tectonic histories, on the one hand, and development
in a range of facies essentially differing in structural at-
tributes, on the other, enables us to evaluate the influence of
various factors on the intensity and type of late diagenetic
phenomena.

Geological setting

The High Tatras are the northernmost of the so-called

“core  mountains”  of  the  Central  Western  Carpathians  (Ko-
tański 1979). On their northern slopes the Variscan crystal-
line  massif  is  covered  by  Permo-Mesozoic  sedimentary
rocks,  lying  in  autochthonous  and  allochthonous  positions.
The sedimentary cover represents two major successions (or
series)  that  substantially  differ  in  their  facies  development.
The High-Tatric succession, resting on the crystalline massif,
is  represented  generally  by  relatively  shallow-water  facies,
marked by numerous stratigraphic gaps. The Sub-Tatric se-
ries, covering the High-Tatric succession, is composed gen-
erally of deeper-water facies and is more complete.

The High-Tatric series consists of both autochthonous and

allochthonous rocks. They belong to three major tectonic
units (Fig. 1) – Kominy Tylkowe Unit (autochthonous), and
Czerwone Wierchy and Giewont units (allochthonous). The
allochthonous units have been detached from their basement
and overthrust northwards during the Alpine Orogeny, and
paleogeographically represent areas situated south of the au-
tochthonous series.

A condensed Middle Jurassic sequence forms the Dunajec

Group, which consists of the Smolegowa Limestone Forma-
tion and the Krupianka Limestone Formation (Fig. 2). In the
allochthonous  units  a  major  stratigraphic  gap  occurs  above
Middle  Triassic  (Anisian)  limestones  and  dolomites,  which
are covered penecordantly by Middle Jurassic deposits of the
Smolegowa  (Bajocian),  Krupianka  (Bathonian)  or  even
Raptawicka Turnia formations (Callovian-Hauterivian). The
Smolegowa  Formation  and  particularly  the  Krupianka  For-
mation are laterally discontinuous, lenticular bodies of thick-

92 ŁUCZYŃSKI

ness ranging usually from a few dozen centimetres to about 2
metres (Fig. 3). The same formations exposed in the autochth-
onous unit, where they overlay the Lower Jurassic to Aalenian
Dudziniec Formation, are usually more continuous, and are up
to a dozen or so metres thick.

The Smolegowa Formation is uniformly developed as un-

bedded white, light grey and pinkish coarse-grained crinoidal
limestones. It is considered to be of Bajocian age, although
this ascription is based only on doubtful brachiopod fauna
(Horwitz & Rabowski 1922; Lefeld et al. 1985).

The Krupianka Formation of Bathonian age (Passendorfer

1936, 1938; Lefeld et al. 1985) occurs in three major lithofa-
cies: crinoidal, ferruginous and nodular limestones (Łuczyński
1999). Common features of all three lithofacies are: intensive
red colour, occurrence of more or less rich pelmatozoan debris
and a relatively abundant and coarse terrigenous admixture of

quartz,  limestones,  dolomites  (and  dedolomitized  secondary
limestones),  commonly  with  ferruginous  envelopes.  Red
crinoidal limestones are exposed mainly in the Giewont Unit.
In the Czerwone Wierchy Unit the crinoidal limestones pass
laterally  into  ferruginous  limestones,  with  thickness  usually
not  exceeding  30  cm.  Stromatolites  are  common  in  both
crinoidal  and  ferruginous  limestones  (Szulczewski  1963,
1968). In most sections of the Kominy Tylkowe Unit the Kru-
pianka limestones exhibit a well-developed nodular structure.

Methods of study

Data concerning types of pressure-solution structures (PSS)

and intensity of their occurrence come from field observations,
examinations of thin sections and studies of the so-called “in-
soluble component” – a residuum obtained by dissolving the
rocks in 10 % acetic acid. In limestones the proportion of in-
soluble components content is considered a good measure of
the pressure-solution intensity (e.g. Ogg 1981; Braithwaite
1989). The compaction rate has been expressed as a propor-
tional loss of the rock’s original thickness.

Residuum received after dissolving the rocks of the Dunajec

Group consists mainly of clay minerals, hematite and quartz
grains. However, the insoluble components content is a func-
tion of three main variables – intensity of pressure-solution,
ferruginous mineralization and influx of clastic admixture.
Moreover, it depends on the deposition rate. Identification of
these factors is crucial in all attempts to evaluate the chemical
compaction rate that are based on the insoluble components
content. In this context, special attention was paid to:

Fig. 1. Structural map of the western part of the Polish section of the High Tatra Massif (B), and its geographical location (A).

Stage(s)

Formation

Group

Callovian – Tithonian

Raptawicka Turnia

Kominy Tylkowe

Bathonian

Krupianka

Dunajec

Bajocian

Smolegowa

Hettangian – Aalenian

Dudziniec

Fig. 2. Lithostratigraphy of the High-Tatric Jurassic (after Lefeld
et al. 1985).

PRESSURE-SOLUTION AND CHEMICAL COMPACTION OF CONDENSED DEPOSITS 93

– frequency and sizes of PSS,
– variations in insoluble components content between the

rocks of the same facies, and differing in PSS frequency,

– variations in the total quartz content in the rocks,
– differences in quartz contribution in the terrigenous ad-

mixture,

– proportion of insoluble component derived from the con-

centrations of PSS in its total volume.

Various rocks or their elements were considered resistant to

pressure-solution and thus could be used as reference points in
determining  original,  pre-compactional  insoluble  component
volume. Stromatolites are one of them (Wanless 1979). How-
ever, residuum content in the stromatolites strongly depends on
their growth rate. More reliable indicators are: terrigenous ad-
mixture  content,  and  contribution  of  insoluble  quartz  in  it.
Clari  &  Martire  (1996)  stated  that  deposits  accumulated  in
neptunian  dykes  represent  a  rock  environment,  which  is  not
subjected  to  any  pressure-solution  processes.  However,  the
Smolegowa  and  the  Krupianka  limestones  filling  numerous
neptunian dykes cannot be used as reference points, as they are
commonly penetrated by PSS (Łuczyński 2000).

Distribution of pressure-solution structures

Basic PSS types occur in a continuous range of variations.

Probably most common are the stylolites, having a form of su-
tured  boundaries  between  the  rock  units  (e.g.  Böer  1977;
Braithwaite 1989). Stylolites are thin and concentrate relative-
ly little residuum. At the other end of the spectrum lie the non-
sutured  dissolution  (clay)  seams,  characterized  by  gentle
course,  relatively  big  thickness,  and  abundant  residuum  (e.g.
Buxton  &  Sibley  1981).  Between  thin,  sutured  stylolites  and
thick, non-sutured dissolution seams lie a range of intermediate
structures, usually called stylolite seams (e.g. Clari & Martire
1996) or sutured dissolution seams (e.g. Cronan et al. 1991).
Clay and stylolite seams often pass laterally into parallel sets
of  thin  microstylolites  or  into  rapidly  fading  away  horsetail
stylolites (Wanless 1979).

Sometimes, the PSS do not have a linear character, but the

dissolution effects are evenly distributed within the rocks.

Sutured  crystal  and/or  grain  boundaries,  occurring  in  the
whole rock’s volume are referred to as  fitted fabric (Rails-
back  1993),  while  homogeneous  rock  dissolution,  without
any  characteristic  structures,  is  called  pervasive  solution
(Wanless 1979). Moreover, intensive PSS occurrence leads
to formation of a number of characteristic varieties of nodu-
lar limestones, such as flaser limestones (e.g. Kaldi 1980), or
stylonodular  limestones  (Logan  &  Semeniuk  1976;  Braith-
waite & Heath 1992; Demicco & Hardie 1994). Appart from
these, the most frequent manifestations of pressure dissolu-
tion are:

– disappearance of voids and porosity (Railsback 1993),
– rotation of resistant grains perpendicularly to the stress

direction (Braithwaite 1989; Demicco & Hardie 1994),

– bioclast truncation (Schlager 1974; Comas et al. 1981),
– micritization of spar grains (Neugebauer 1978),
– grain overlap (Mc Bride et al. 1991),
– re-precipitation of dissolved calcium carbonate as ce-

ments (Logan & Semeniuk 1976),

– dolomitization (Wanless 1979),
– undulations of younger vertical veinlets (Mišík 1998).
Most of the above listed structures and phenomena occur in

the Dunajec Group.

Smolegowa Limestone Formation

The Smolegowa crinoidal limestones are almost exclusively

composed of syntaxial crystals, only locally accompanied by
micrite enclaves (Fig. 4). Their similar development in all the
High-Tatric tectonic units implies that eventual variations in
PSS occurrence and intensity are caused by differences of tec-
tono-diastrophic history.

Among the PSS of the Smolegowa limestones sutured vari-

eties distinctly predominate (Table 1). They are represented
mainly by thin stylolites, with little residuum and high ampli-
tude of sutures. Contacts of syntaxial crystals are commonly
sutured, which can be treated as a specific type of fitted fabric
(Fig. 5). Stylolite seams with little residuum occur locally in
more micritic zones. Resistant grains – mostly quartz, con-
centrate on some of the PSS. The intensity of pressure-solu-
tion effects is relatively low, with some parts of the profiles
devoid of them.

High resistance of sparry, coarse-grained crinoidal Smole-

gowa limestones to pressure-solution caused a very distinct
domination or even exclusiveness of sutured PSS. Sutured
structures with little residuum form mainly in pure limestones
with prevalence of spar over micrite (Buxton & Sibley 1981).
High amplitude of sutures is characteristic for rocks composed
of large and resistant elements (Braithwaite 1989). Fitted fab-
ric is typical for sparry limestones subjected to high pressures
(Railsback 1993). Paucity of the residuum was caused by low
insoluble material content.

Krupianka Limestone Formation

The three facies of the Krupianka Formation were treated

separately, as were the stromatolites.

Fig. 3. Idealized spatial relations between the Middle Jurassic litho-
somes  in  the  High-Tatric  foldic  units;  1  –  Middle  Triassic  lime-
stones and dolomites,  2  –  white  coarse  crinoidal  limestones  of  the
Smolegowa  Formation  (Bajocian),  3  –  red  ferruginous  and  crinoi-
dal limestones of the Krupianka Formation (Bathonian), 4 – Wavy
bedded limestones of the Raptawicka Turnia Formation (Callovian),
5  –  Massive  limestones  of  the  Raptawicka  Turnia  Formation  (Ox-
fordian).

94 ŁUCZYŃSKI

– spar/micrite ratio (corresponding generally with the

content of pelmatozoan elements),

– size of syntaxial crystals,
– original – pre-compactional content of ferruginous

minerals,

– content of terrigenous admixture (particularly of insolu-

ble quartz grains).

The most frequent pressure-solution effects in the Krupi-

anka crinoidal limestones are stylolite seams (Table 1). They
are accompanied by sutured stylolites and non-sutured dissolu-
tion seams. Laterally thick clay seams pass locally into sets of
microstylolites and horsetail stylolites (Fig. 6). The residuum
volume of the PSS is distinctly higher than in the Smolegowa
Formation, and concentrations of resistant quartz grains and
hematite are also much more frequent (Fig. 7), while fitted
fabric occurs very rarely. The PSS are widespread, and with
various intensities occur in all outcrops.

One of the changeable elements in the Krupianka crinoidal

limestones is the pelmatozoan fragments versus micrite ratio.
Sutured PSS types predominate in parts with more abundant
spar crystals. However, the stylolites’ amplitude is relatively
low, which is caused by the limited dimensions of individual
crystals. Fitted fabric could not develop, as the syntaxial crys-
tals are not in contact with each other. In more micritic zones

Fig. 5. Fitted fabric structure in coarse-crinoidal limestones of the
Smolegowa Formation. Syntaxial crystals have sutured boundaries.

Fig. 6. Clay seam laterally passing into microstylolites in the
crinoidal limestones of the Krupianka Formation.

Table 1: Occurrence of pressure solution structures in condensed Middle Jurassic sediments of the High-Tatric series.

Lithostratigraphic

units

Lithological

varieties

Stylolites

with high

sutures

Stylolites

with low

sutures

Stylolite

seams

Thin clay

seams

Thick

clay

seams

Microstylolites &

horsetail stylolites

Fitted
fabric

Pervasisive

solution

Concentrations of

resistant grains

Smolegowa
Formation

Crinoidal

limestones

Numerous

Rare

Very rare

Krupianka
Formation

Crinoidal

limestones

Rare

Numerous

Common Numerous

Rare

Sporadic

Rare

Ferruginous

limestones

Very rare

Numerous

Common Common Common

Common

Rare

Nodular limestones

– matrix

Rare

Numerous Common

Common

Rare

Nodular limestones

– nodules

Rare

Numerous

Rare

Numerous

Stromatolites

Rare

Numerous Very rare

Numerous

Crinoidal limestones

The Krupianka crinoidal limestones (outcropping in the

Giewont Unit and in the eastern part of the autochthonous
unit) in many aspects distinctly differ from the Smolegowa
limestones. These differences have found their reflection in
PSS development. Special attention had to be paid to:

Fig. 4. Micritic enclaves (A) with concentrations of insoluble material
within coarse crinoidal Smolegowa limestones (B).

0.4 mm

3 mm

PRESSURE-SOLUTION AND CHEMICAL COMPACTION OF CONDENSED DEPOSITS 95

mainly thin clay seams occur. A dominance of non-sutured
structures is typical for micritic limestones devoid of elements
resistant to pressure-solution (Braithwaite 1989).

The residuum is much richer in the PSS of the Krupianka

crinoidal  limestones  than  in  that  of  the  Smolegowa  lime-
stones.  More  intensive  dissolution  of  the  Krupianka  lime-
stones was caused by their higher susceptibility to pressure-
solution  processes.  The  abundance  and  size  of  resistant
pelmatozoan elements were decisive factors. Higher insolu-
ble material content did not restrict the dissolution, as postu-
lated by Wanless (1979) and Zydorowicz (1991).

Ferruginous limestones

The Krupianka ferruginous limestones (outcropping in the

Czerwone  Wierchy  Unit)  form  a  continuous  spectrum  with
the  crinoidal  limestones,  from  which  they  differ  mainly  by
gradual  (but  rarely  total)  elimination  of  pelmatozoan  ele-
ments, and by a greater abundance of ferruginous minerals,
terrigenous admixture and PSS.

Non-sutured varieties predominate among the PSS of the

ferruginous  limestones  (Table  1).  Thick  dissolution  seams
are most frequent. In some sections, clay seams concentrate
so much insoluble material, and occur so densely, that practi-
cally  the  whole  formation  (with  a  thickness  of  dozen  or  so
centimetres) has the character of pressure-solution residuum.
In such cases a pervasive solution took place. Laterally thick
clay seams pass into parallel systems of thinner dissolution
seams,  microstylolites  and  horsetail  stylolites.  Dominating
non-sutured dissolution seams are accompanied by stylolite
seams with relatively low sutures and rich residuum, concen-
trating in zones with more abundant pelmatozoan fragments
and terrigenous admixture (Fig. 8).

The set of PSS that occurs in the Krupianka ferruginous

limestones is characteristic for rocks that are: very suscepti-
ble to pressure-solution (Buxton & Sibley 1981), devoid of
(or with very few) larger resistant elements influencing the
course of the PSS (Railsback 1993), and abundant in clay
and/or dispersed ferruginous minerals passing into the resid-
uum (Braithwaite 1989).

Micritic ferruginous limestones, with limited admixture of

pelmatozoan fragments were very susceptible to pressure-so-

Fig. 8. Concentration of grains resistant to pressure dissolution on a
stylolite seam (arrows) in the ferruginous limestones of the Krupianka
Formation.

Fig. 7. Amorphous concentrations (A) and authigenic crystals of he-
matite (B) in the Krupianka crinoidal limestones.

lution. General paucity of resistant elements is responsible for
a non-sutured course of the PSS, while thickness of the clay
seams, and the richness of the residuum are an effect of pre-
compactional abundance of clay and ferruginous minerals.

Nodular limestones

Nodular limestones of the Krupianka Formation outcrop in

the  western  part  of  the  Polish  section  of  the  autochthonous
unit. Szulczewski (1965) interpreted their formation by rede-
position  processes.  They  display  a  structure,  which  is  com-
monly  referred  to  as  stylonodular  (e.g.  Braithwaite  &  Heath
1992; Demicco & Hardie 1994; Clari & Martire 1996).

In the Krupianka nodular limestones distinctly different

dissolution phenomena are characteristic for the nodules and
for the matrix that surrounds them.

Matrix. The matrix of nodular limestones has a high PSS

concentration, with predominance of relatively thin clay and
stylolite seams (Table 1). Laterally the seams pass into paral-
lel sets of microstylolites and stylolites, locally penetrating
the nodule boundaries (Fig. 9).

Nodules. The PSS are much more rarer in the nodules than

in the matrix. Stylolites with relatively low sutures and little
residuum are most frequent (Table 1). They are the only

Fig. 9. Stylolite seams passing laterally into sets of microstylolites
and horsetail stylolites, forming a stylonodular structure in the
nodular limestones of the Krupianka Formation.

2 mm

3 mm

96 ŁUCZYŃSKI

types of PSS that penetrate the central parts of the nodules,
while all the others concentrate on their rims (Fig. 9). Micro-
stylolites penetrating the nodule/matrix boundary are common
in peripheral parts of the lenticular nodules.

Pressure-solution phenomena that took place in the nodules

and in the matrix, are characteristic for different rock environ-
ments. Structures from the matrix resemble those from the fer-
ruginous limestones. The abundance of their occurrence, and
distinct domination of non-sutured forms, point to the rocks’
susceptibility  to  dissolution  and  lack  of  resistant  elements
(Wanless 1979; Buxton & Sibley 1981). However, the process
was not so strong as in the ferruginous limestones, and the pre-
compactional insoluble clay and/or ferruginous minerals con-
tent was lower. On the other hand, pressure-solution intensity
in the nodules is relatively low. Stylolites with low sutures are
characteristic for competent rocks, composed of equally resis-
tant  elements.  As  the  nodules  are  poor  in  resistant  elements,
the  only  factor  that  could  cause  their  resistance,  is  heteroge-
neous  early  cementation  (Jurgan  1969;  Zydorowicz  1991;
Clari & Martire 1996).

Stromatolites

Stromatolites occur within the profiles of crinoidal and fer-

ruginous Krupianka limestones in all the High-Tatric tectonic
units (Szulczewski 1963). As they co-exist in the same sec-
tions with other types of rocks, and therefore have undergone
the same history of overload pressure and regional stress, they
may act as reference points in attempts to assess the influence
of the rock structure on pressure-solution.

The following features of PSS are characteristic of the High-

Tatric Middle Jurassic stromatolites (Table 1):

– thin stylolites with low sutures inside the stromatolite

domes,

– common capping of upper surfaces of stromatolites by

thick clay seams,

– relatively common concentrations of fine resistant ele-

ments (mainly quartz and ferruginous grains) in the stylolites
and clay seams.

Intensity of dissolution phenomena in the stromatolites is

usually much lower than in the neighbouring rocks, which is
an effect of their higher resistance, caused by early cementa-
tion of the stromatolite domes (Wanless 1979). The relatively
most  frequent,  thin  stylolites  followed  the  original  internal
structure of the stromatolites. On the other hand, because of
their low rate of growth (Szulczewski 1966, 1968; Pentecost
1990),  the  stromatolites  comprised  a  lot  of  fine  terrigenous
material, concentrating in the PSS. Clay seams capping the
stromatolites  are  an  effect  of  dissolution  of  the  overlying
rocks, and residuum concentration on top of rigid domes.

Assessment of compaction rate

One of main effects of pressure-solution is the rock’s thick-

ness reduction. The first stage of the rock’s volume decrease is
the mechanical compaction – mainly disappearance of po-
rous spaces. It is followed by chemical compaction, being an
effect of the overload pressure.

Attempts to assess the rate of the rock’s chemical compac-

tion have been based on various features. Ogg (1981) estimat-
ed that in the Ammonitico Rosso Formation one stylolite seam
corresponds to about 4 cm of deposits. Braithwaite (1989) de-
termined the quantity of dissolution residuum concentrated on
the stylolites. Railsback (1993) assessed the compaction of
clastic rocks by the rate of grain overlap. In the present paper
in every possible case the compaction of the High-Tatric Mid-
dle Jurassic was independently determined on the basis of var-
ious available data, in order to confirm the obtained results.

Smolegowa Limestone Formation

In the Czerwone Wierchy Unit the Smolegowa limestones

are devoid of any indications of pressure-solution. Therefore,
the rocks outcropping there were treated as a reference point in
attempts to assess rock compaction in other tectonic units (Ta-
ble 2a). The second method used consisted in determination of
the average PSS content (Table 2b), and calculation of the cor-
responding thickness reduction.

The two methods gave close results, especially for the

Giewont Unit. Somewhat bigger differences occur for the au-
tochthonous  unit,  where  the  result  obtained  from  the  weight
analysis of insoluble components is distinctly higher than that
coming from the calculations of the PSS quantity. It has proba-
bly been caused by two main factors: relatively higher intensi-
ty of ferruginous mineralization, which has increased the in-
soluble  component  content,  and  small  thickness  of  the
Smolegowa limestones in some sections of the autochthonous
unit. This effected the concentration of insoluble material on
lithological boundaries, which is a typical phenomenon (Bux-
ton  &  Sibley  1981;  Bathurst  1987;  Braithwaite  &  Heath
1992).

Thickness reduction of the Smolegowa Formation in the au-

tochthonous and Giewont units, caused by pressure-solution,
was in the range of ~15 up to >20 %.

Krupianka Limestone Formation

Crinoidal limestones

Thickness reduction of the Bathonian crinoidal limestones,

calculated  on  the  basis  of  insoluble  components  content,  is
>30  %  (Table  3a).  The  pre-compactional  insoluble  compo-
nents  content  was  calculated  by  comparing  the  residuum
weights of similarly facially developed samples, with different
PSS abundance.

Compaction of the Krupianka crinoidal limestones from the

Giewont Unit was also determined on the basis of quartz con-
tent  in  the  terrigenous  admixture  (Table  3b).  It  equals  about
15 % in the Bajocian outcropping in this area, and about 20 %
in the Bathonian. It can be assumed that, at least predominant-
ly,  the  difference  is  caused  by  change  of  clastic  admixture
composition due to selective dissolution of carbonate clasts. It
corresponds to about 25 % thickness reduction, as related to
the  Smolegowa  limestones.  Total  compaction  calculated  this
way  is  about  40  %.  In  selected  sections  an  attempt  was  also

PRESSURE-SOLUTION AND CHEMICAL COMPACTION OF CONDENSED DEPOSITS 97

made to compare the PSS occurrence in the Smolegowa and
Krupianka limestones (Table 3c). The method was based on
the stylolites abundance in both formations. It pointed to a
compaction rate of 30 %— >50 %.

PSS distribution in the Krupianka crinoidal limestones is

very heterogeneous, and therefore the obtained data must be
treated only as an approximation. However, confirmation of
their creditability comes from the resemblance of the results
obtained by various methods.

Stromatolites

Compaction of the stromatolites from the Czerwone

Wierchy and Giewont units is distinctly different. In case of
stromatolites  from  the  ferruginous  limestones  of  the  Czer-
wone  Wierchy  Unit,  it  amounts  >30  %,  while  in  stromato-
lites  from  the  crinoidal  limestones  of  the  Giewont  Unit,  it
equals  about  10  %.  Similar  proportions  exist  between  the
Krupianka  Formation  rocks  from  the  two  aforementioned
tectonic units.

Stromatolites are the only rocks of the Krupianka Formation,

in which major PSS could be creditably counted (Table 4a). The
results obtained this way, and by evaluation of the insoluble
component (Table 4b), are very close to each other.

Ferruginous limestones

Among the Krupianka Formation lithofacies the most in-

tensive dissolution took place in the ferruginous limestones.
The determinations of the pre-compactional insoluble com-
ponents content were based on appropriate values that were
calculated for the stromatolites.

Comparison of the terrigenous admixture composition and

abundance was made for stromatolites and ferruginous lime-
stones from the same profiles. Two phenomena are character-
istic. Firstly, quartz content drastically drops in the stromato-
lites, being quite stable within a given profile. Most
probably, the higher quartz content in the ferruginous lime-
stones is caused by intensive selective dissolution of carbon-
ates. Thickness reduction calculated this way equals about

Table 2: Compaction rate assessment of the Smolegowa Formation.

Tectonic unit

Average insoluble component content in

1 kg of rock in a profile devoid of PSS*

(x)

Average insoluble component content in

1 kg of rock in profiles with PSS*

(y)

Proportional thickness reduction

(100%

• (y - x) / y)

Czerwone Wierchy

18g

Giewont

21g

~ 15%

Autochthonous

25.5g

~ 29%

Average for all the studied samples.

Type of pressure solution

structures

Tectonic unit

Density of the occurrence of

PSS in the vertical profile

(x)

Probable thickness reduction

connected with a single

structure

(y)

Proportional thickness reduction

• y• 100%)

Stylolites with high

sutures and with little

residuum

Giewont

~ 10/m

~ 1 cm*

~ 10%

Autochthonous

~ 15/m

~ 15%

Stylolites with low

sutures and stylolite

seams

Giewont

~ 3/m

~ 1.5 cm**

~ 4%

Autochthonous

~ 5/m

~ 8%

Fitted fabric

Autochthonous

Only locally

~ 20%***

Minor importance (<1%)

Concentration of resistant grains

Autochthonous

Only locally

~ 2 - 3cm

Minor importance (<1%)

Total

Giewont

~ 14%

Autochthonous

~ 24%

* Value approximated by comparing the insoluble component contents of the samples devoid of PSS and samples where their number in a vertical profile

has been determined.

** Value approximated by comparing average residuum volume of these structures and of the stylolites with high sutures.
*** Average size reduction of the syntaxial crystals.

98 ŁUCZYŃSKI

71 % (Table 5a). Secondly, stromatolites differ from ferrugi-
nous limestones in the total terrigenous admixture content
(Table 5b). The result obtained by calculation of these data
(77 %) corresponds well with that emerging from quartz-
content analysis. It is, however, strongly dependent on the re-
lation with depositional rates.

The presumed pre-compactional insoluble components

content of the ferruginous limestones has been calculated
(Table 5c). Results (~ 91 g/kg) are comparable with those ob-
tained for other lithofacies, which confirms the creditability
of the presented data.

The present thickness of the Krupianka ferruginous lime-

stones  is  4—5  times  smaller  than  prior  to  the  compaction.
Therefore, their whole volume can well be treated as a pres-
sure-solution residuum. The rocks probably reached the bor-
der  value  of  insoluble  components  content  (between  30 %
and  50 %),  which  froze  the  dissolution  process  (Wanless
1979).

Nodular limestones

Compaction of the matrix is incomparably higher than of

the nodules, which caused the necessity of their separate
treatment.

On the basis of the occurrence of stylolites with high su-

tures, the compaction rate of the nodules was estimated as
about 15 % (Table 6a). The residuum weight was used to de-

termine compaction of the whole rock. The Krupianka For-
mation from the Kominy Tylkowe massif, devoid of nodular-
ity, and lithologically corresponding to the nodules, was used
as a reference point. A correction due to their thickness re-
duction was assessed at 10 % (Table 6a’). Nodular lime-
stones compaction, calculated on the basis of insoluble com-
ponent content, equals about 50 % (Table 6b).

Determination of the thickness reduction that took place

within the matrix was made indirectly. The rock’s volume oc-
cupied by the nodules and by the matrix was assessed. Know-
ing the compaction of the nodules and of the whole rock, the
thickness reduction of the matrix was determined. It was esti-
mated at about 73 % (Table 6c), which is comparable to results
obtained for the ferruginous limestones. The whole matrix can
therefore be treated as a pressure-solution residuum.

Regional differentiation of pressure-solution

phenomena

Pressure-solution intensity depends mainly on the rock’s

structure. However, similar rocks of the Dunajec Group, from
various tectonic units, distinctly differ in this matter. The dif-
ferences are most obvious in two cases. In the Smolegowa
limestones, strongest compaction took place in the autochtho-
nous unit, distinctly lower in the Giewont Unit (Table 2),
while in the Czerwone Wierchy Unit the rocks are devoid of

Table 3: Compaction rate assessment of the Krupianka Formation crinoidal limestones.

a .

Tectonic unit

Probable precompactional insoluble

component content in 1 kg of rock*

(x)

Average insoluble component content

in 1 kg of rock**

(y)

Proportional thickness reduction

(100%

• (y - x) / y)

Giewont

~ 92g

149g

~ 38%

Autochthonous

~ 112g

167g

~ 33%

* Value estimated by comparing the residuum volume of the profiles with a determined content of PSS — the increase of the residuum content connected

with doubling the number of PSS in the rocks has been calculated.

** Average for all the studied samples.

Tectonic unit

Quartz content in the

terrigenic admixture

in the Bajocian*

(x)

Quartz content in the

terrigenic admixture

in the Bathonian*

(y)

Proportional compaction of

the Bathonian versus the

Bajocian

(100%

• (y - x) / y)

Proportional thickness

reduction of the

Bajocian**

(z)

Proportional thickness reduction

(z + (100%

• (y - x) / y))

Giewont

~ 15%

~ 20%

~ 25%

~ 15%

~ 40%

* Average of all the studied samples.
** See Table 2a.

Tectonic unit

Proportional thickness reduction

of the Bajocian attributed to the

stylolites*

(x)

Relative proportion of the

stylolites occurrence in the

Bathonian and the Bajocian

(y)

Contribution of the stylolites in

the thickness reduction of the

Bathonian**

(z)

Proportional thickness

reduction

(100%

• x • y / z)

Giewont

~ 10 %

~ 1.5 : 1

~ 40%

~ 37%

Autochthonous

~ 15 %

~ 1.5 : 1

~ 40%

~ 56%

* See Table 2b.
** Approximate value, determined on the basis of the intensity of the occurrence of stylolites and other PSS.

PRESSURE-SOLUTION AND CHEMICAL COMPACTION OF CONDENSED DEPOSITS 99

Table 4: Compaction rate assessment of the Krupianka Formation stromatolites.

Tectonic unit

Occurrence of the

stylolites in a vertical

profile

(x)

Probable thickness

reduction connected

with a single stylolite*

(y)

Thickness reduction

connected with

stylolites

(100%

• x • y)

Contribution of

stylolites in the total

thickness reduction**

(z)

Proportional thickness reduction

100%

• (100% • x • y / z)

Czerwone

Wierchy

40/m

~ 0.005 m

~ 20%

~ 60%

~ 33%

Giewont

10/m

~ 5%

~ 50%

~ 10%

* Value estimated by comparing the residuum volume of the stylolites from the stromatolites and from other rocks and by evaluating the concentrations of

fine quartz grains.

** Approximate value determined on the base of the intensity of occurrence of the stromatolites and other PSS (mainly microstylolites and horsetail

stylolites).

Tectonic unit

Probable precompactional content of

insoluble components in 1 kg of rock*

(x)

Insoluble component content in 1 kg

of rock

(y)

Proportional thickness reduction

(100%

• (y - x) / y)

Czerwone Wierchy

~ 104 g

163 g

~ 36%

Giewont

119 g

~ 13%

* Value estimated by comparing the residuum volume of the profiles with a determined content of PSS — the increase of the residuum content connected

with doubling the number of PSS in the rocks has been calculated.

Table 5: Compaction rate assessment of the Krupianka Formation ferruginous limestones.

Tectonic unit

Content of quartz in

the terrigenic

admixture in the

stromatolites

(x)

Proportional

thickness reduction

of the stromatolites*

(y)

Probable original

quartz content in the
terrigenic admixture

in the stromatolites

• (100% - y))

Average quartz

content in the

terrigenic admixture

in the ferruginous

limestones

(z)

Proportional thickness reduction

(100%

• (100% - (x • 100% - y) / z))

Czerwone Wierchy

1.2%

~ 36%

~ 0.8%

2.8%

~ 71%

*See Table 4b.

Tectonic unit

Terrigenic admixture

content in the

stromatolites

(x)

Proportional

thickness reduction

of the stromatolites*

(y)

Probable original

terrigenic admixture

content in the

stromatolites

• 100% - y)

Average terrigenic

admixture content in the

ferruginous limestones

(z)

Proportional thickness reduction

100%

• (100% - (x • 100% - y) / z)

Czerwone Wierchy

5.5%

~ 36%

~ 3.5%

~ 15%

~ 77%

* See Table 4b.

Tectonic unit

Proportional thickness reduction

(100%

• (y - x) / y)

Average insoluble components

content in 1 kg of rock*

(y)

Probable precompactional insoluble

components content in 1 kg of rock*

(x)

Czerwone Wierchy

77%**

395g

91g

* Average for all the samples.
** Value taken from Table 5a.

PSS. A thickness reduction more than three times higher took
place in stromatolites of the Krupianka Formation from the
Czerwone Wierchy Unit than in those, from the Giewont Unit
(Table 4). Intensive stromatolite dissolution in the Czerwone
Wierchy Unit is accompanied by strongest compaction of the
Krupianka Formation. Distinctly smaller thickness reduction
took place in the autochthonous unit and relatively the small-
est in the Giewont Unit. Yet another expression of dissolution

intensity in the Czerwone Wierchy Unit comes from common
occurrence of neptunian dykes with walls running along stylo-
lites and clay seams (Łuczyński in prep.).

Different overload pressure is the most common cause of

varied  PSS  development  in  uniformly  developed  rocks.
However,  in  the  Tatra  Mountains,  the  thickness  of  rocks
overlying  the  Middle  Jurassic  is  similar  in  various  tectonic
units (Lefeld et al. 1985). Regional tectonics can be an alter-

100 ŁUCZYŃSKI

native cause of such differences (Railsback 1993; Clari &
Martire 1996; Mišík et al. 1994).

Time of PSS formation is unknown. Probably the PSS de-

veloped not long after deposition of rocks, in which they oc-
cur. This is indicated by the influence of early diagenetic ce-
ments  on  their  distribution  in  the  stylonodular  limestones.
Moreover,  easier  dissolution  of  micritic  matrix  than  of  cal-
careous  extraclasts  in  the  crinoidal  and  ferruginous  lime-
stones  points  to  distinct  lithification  differences.  The  PSS
probably started to develop during sedimentation of thick de-
posits of the Raptawicka Turnia Formation. Such an interpre-
tation  excludes  eventual  connection  of  pressure-solution
with otherthrusting of the Tatric nappes.

The influence of pressure-solution

on the development of selected lithofacies

Intensive and differentiated pressure-solution had great in-

fluence on the composition and structure of the High-Tatric
Middle Jurassic. Distinct changes concern: thickness, clay
minerals and ferruginous compounds content, content and
composition of terrigenous admixture and micrite/spar ratio.
The above listed features are commonly taken into account in

paleogeographic interpretations and therefore, it is important
to know their precompactional values.

Krupianka ferruginous limestones

Very intensive dissolution of Bathonian ferruginous lime-

stones had an essential influence on their thickness, structure
and composition, and distinctly altered their original, pre-
compactional attributes.

The probable pre-compactional insoluble components con-

tent  in  the  ferruginous  limestones  equalled  about  91 g/kg
(Table 5c), which is comparable to values obtained for other
Krupianka Formation lithofacies. The total weight of ferrugi-
nous  compounds,  clay  minerals  and  non-calcareous  extra-
clasts,  constituting  together  the  insoluble  component,  was
then,  quite  similar  in  various  lithofacies.  Only  the  propor-
tions  were  different.  Abundance  of  ferruginous  minerals  in
the Bathonian of the Czerwone Wierchy Unit must have been
counterbalanced by paucity of other insoluble elements. The
terrigenous  admixture  quantity  has  been  precisely  deter-
mined (Łuczyński 1999), and shows no depletion, which in-
dicates  that  the  clay  minerals  content  must  have  been  very
low. The described phenomena are typical of stratigraphical-

Table 6: Compaction rate assessment of the Krupianka Formation nodular limestones.

a. Nodules

PSS type

Tectonic unit

PSS occurrence in the vertical

profile

(x)

Probable thickness reduction

connected with a single

structure**

(y)

Proportional thickness

reduction

• y •100%)

Stylolites with low sutures and

little residuum

Autochthonous*

10/m

1.5cm

~ 15%

a’. Rock without a distinct nodular structure

Stylolites with low sutures

and little residuum

Autochthonous***

10/m

1cm

~ 10%

* Only parts of the profiles with a distinct nodular structure.
** Determined by comparing the residuum contents with the structures from other tectonic units.
*** Data for parts of the profiles without distinct nodular structure.

b. The whole rock

Tectonic unit

Average insoluble component content

in 1 kg of rock without a distinct

nodular structure*

(x)

Average insoluble component content
in 1 kg of rock with a distinct nodular

structure**

(y)

Proportional thickness reduction

(100%

• (y - x) / y)

Autochthonous

~ 66g***

132g

~ 50%

* Average for all the samples.
** Average of all the samples from the profiles with a distinct nodular structures.
*** After taking into account the probable thickness reduction calculated in Table 6a’.

c . Matrix

Tectonic unit

Proportion of the rock

occupied by the

nodules*

(x)

Proportion of the rock

occupied by the matrix

(100% - x)

Proportional thickness

reduction of the

nodules**

(y)

Proportional thickness
reduction of the whole

rock***

(z)

Proportional thickness reduction of

the matrix

[100% - {(100% - z) – 100%

•

(100% - y) x

• 100%} / (100% - x)]

Autochthonous

~ 40%

~ 60%

~ 15%

~ 50%

~ 73%

* Approximate value.
* See Table 6a.
* See Table 6b.

PRESSURE-SOLUTION AND CHEMICAL COMPACTION OF CONDENSED DEPOSITS 101

ly condensed units, deposited on paleohighs. On the one
hand, they are commonly characterized by rich occurrence of
ferruginous compounds (Hallam 1967; Jenkyns 1970, 1974;
Wendt 1973, 1974; Winterer & Bosellini 1981); and on the
other, by high carbonate content (> 95 % – Comas et al.
1981), probably caused by winnowing of clay minerals into
neighbouring basins (Jenkyns 1971).

It appears that prior to the compaction, ferruginous and

crinoidal limestones of the Krupianka Formation did not dif-
fer as much as they do today. Basic differences were related
to proportions of some of the components. The rocks of the
Czerwone Wierchy Unit had a slightly higher ferruginous
compounds content, and a lower content of clay minerals and
pelmatozoan skeletal fragments.

Krupianka stylonodular limestones

The stylonodular structure of the Bathonian of the autoch-

thonous unit is an effect of pressure-solution. It formed by
transformation of a non-homogeneous rock.

The most frequent differences between nodules and matrix

relate to:

– lithification, usually connected with occurrence of early

cements (Jurgan 1969; Garrison & Kennedy 1977; Zydorow-
icz 1991; Braithwaite & Heath 1992; Clari & Martire 1996),

– carbonates and clay minerals content (Hallam 1967;

Logan & Semeniuk 1976; Winterer & Bosellini 1981; Zydor-
owicz 1991; Baumgartner 1995),

– macrofauna occurrence – mainly ammonites (Jenkyns

1974).

The stylonodular structure of the autochthonous Bathonian

is very distinct. The rocks contain all characteristic features
of the stylonodular limestones, such as:

– different intensity of the PSS occurrence in the nodules

and in the matrix, in favour of the matrix (Szulczewski 1965;
Comas et al. 1981; Zydorowicz 1991; Clari & Martire 1996),

– domination of non-sutured PSS varieties in the matrix

(Wanless 1979; Demicco & Hardie 1994), and of stylolites in
the nodules (Braithwaite & Heath 1992; Baumgartner 1995),

– distinctly higher clay minerals content in the matrix

(Hallam 1967; Baumgartner 1995),

– microfauna concentration in the matrix (Ogg 1981; Zy-

dorowicz 1991),

– extraclast concentration in the matrix,
– same nodule and matrix microfacies (Braithwaite &

Heath 1992),

– elongated, lenticular nodule shape (Szulczewski 1965;

Comas et al. 1981),

– similar nodule sizes (Zydorowicz 1991),
– sharp nodule boundaries at the top and the bottom, and

gradual at the sides (Kaldi 1980).

A structure similar to stylonodular was also found in the

Krupianka limestones infilling the neptunian dykes (Łuc-
zyński 1999), which confirms its diagenetic origin (Hsü
1983; Vera et al. 1987).

Pressure-solution has led to major reconstruction of the

nodular limestones’ original structure. Pre-compactional dif-
ferences between the nodules and the matrix were less evi-

dent than they are today. They were limited to various car-
bonate and clay contents, and to occurrence of rigid, early
calcite cements in the nodules. The original ferruginous com-
pounds and terrigenous admixture contents were distinctly
lower. All this indicates that the nodular limestones did not
differ much from the Bathonian lithofacies.

Conclusions

1) The Dunajec Group was subjected to intensive pressure-

solution.  Thickness  reduction  of  the  Smolegowa  Formation
caused  by  chemical  compaction  has  been  assessed  at  about
20 %. The chemical compaction of various Krupianka For-
mation  lithofacies  is  different,  and  equals:  crinoidal  lime-
stones – ~ 30 %, nodular limestones – ~ 50 %, and ferrugi-
nous limestones – ~70 %.

2) Chemical compaction of rocks outcropping in various

High-Tatric tectonic units (Smolegowa crinoidal limestones,
stromatolites) varies in different units. The differences were
probably caused by various tectonic histories.

3) The present-day development of the Krupianka Forma-

tion as three distinct lithofacies is largely a result of pres-
sure-solution. Crinoidal limestones represent the facies least
affected by dissolution. Ferruginous limestones were formed
by concentration of resistant elements, caused by very strong
compaction. The stylonodular structure is an effect of selec-
tive matrix dissolution of nodular limestones. Nodule resis-
tance was probably caused by early calcite cements.

Acknowledgements: The present paper summarizes a part
of my Ph.D. thesis prepared at Warsaw University under the
supervision of my tutor – Prof. Michał Szulczewski, to
whom I wish to express my gratefulness for all the help and
advice. I also wish to thank Prof. Jenkyns, Prof. Mišík and
Prof. Babčan for their valuable comments on the first version
of this paper. The studies were partly financed from a Polish
state KBN Grant No. 6 P04D 005 15 and BW 1484/13.

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